tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-78993156205983340012024-03-12T16:32:40.406-07:00War Upon The WaterMitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.comBlogger55125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-5975846664346120522016-10-26T07:57:00.002-07:002016-10-26T07:57:29.990-07:00BB Settsu<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<i><b>Settsu seen here in her final appearance before being
disarmed for use as a target ship, and then later, a radio-controlled
ship (1938). Note that she is still carrying her torpedo net defence
at this late date (August 1921).</b></i><br />
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<br />The 21,440-ton <a href="http://www.combinedfleet.com/Settsu_t.htm">Settsu</a>
and Kawachi, laid down in 1909 and completed in 1912, were Japan’s
first dreadnoughts. Their twelve 12-inch guns were imported Armstrongs,
but their Brown–Curtis turbine engines were made in Japan, under license
by Kawasaki. Their armor, too, was manufactured in Japan, which had
first produced Krupp armor under license for the two 13,750-ton armored
cruisers of the Tsukuba class, laid down in Kure early in 1905 as
replacements for the battleships Hatsuse and Yashima, lost to Russian
mines earlier in the war. These warships, and the two 14,640-ton armored
cruisers of the subsequent Ibuki class, eventually were re-rated as
battle cruisers, owing to their large size and heavy primary armament of
four 12-inch guns. 18 After laying down the Settsu and Kawachi, Japan
waited three years to begin another dreadnought.<br /><div style="line-height: 100%;">
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<i><b>Displacement: 21,440 tons normal load</b></i><br />
<i><b>Dimensions: Length: 526ft oa; Beam: 84ft 3in; Draught: 27ft
mean</b></i><br />
<i><b>Armament: 12 x 12in (mixture of 45 and 50cal); 10 x 6in
50cal; 8 x 4.7in; 12 x 14pdr; TT: 5 x 18in</b></i><br />
<i><b>Armour: Main belt: 12in–4in; Barbettes: 11in; Decks:
2in–1in; Turrets: 9in (faces); Casemates: 6in; Conning tower: 10in</b></i><br />
<i><b>Machinery: Two Curtis turbines (Parsons in Settsu) driving
two screws, sixteen Miyabara boilers</b></i><br />
<i><b>Designed SHP: 25,000 for 20 knots</b></i><br />
<i><b>Fuel: 1,000 tons coal min, 2,300 tons max; 175–400 tons
oil</b></i><br />
<i><b>Complement: 960–1,000</b></i><br />
<i><b>SETTSU</b></i><br />
<i><b>Laid down: 18 January 1909, Yokosuka Dockyard</b></i><br />
<i><b>Launched: 30 March 1911</b></i><br />
<i><b>Completed: July 1912</b></i><br />
<i><b>Fate: Sunk at Kure by US aircraft, 24 July 1945</b></i><br />
<i><b>KAWACHI</b></i><br />
<i><b>Laid down: 1 April 1909, Kure Naval Yard</b></i><br />
<i><b>Launched: 15 October 1910</b></i><br />
<i><b>Completed: March 1912</b></i><br />
<i><b>Fate: Sunk as result of an internal explosion, Tokuyama Bay
12 July 1918</b></i><br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-26251793516554192252016-08-04T23:21:00.001-07:002016-08-04T23:21:24.108-07:00Revisiting Nelson and Trafalgar<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article">
<h4>
<a href="http://www.armchairgeneral.com/revisiting-nelson-and-trafalgar.htm">Revisiting Nelson and Trafalgar</a></h4>
Now that 200 years have passed on one of the most famous naval battles that ever took place in history, it's time to look back and try to get a fresh look upon it. What made this battle so special? In order to answer to this question we must understand Nelson's history.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-50215621405492057702016-08-04T23:20:00.000-07:002016-08-04T23:20:02.598-07:00The Virginius<blockquote class="embedly-card" data-card-image="http://www.armchairgeneral.com/wordpress/wp-content/features/2007/virginius/virginius1.jpg" data-card-key="8ac4b7fee45c4d83a80aed58857fcf40" data-card-type="article-full">
<h4>
<a href="http://www.armchairgeneral.com/the-virginius.htm">The Virginius</a></h4>
William Ryan smiled defiantly as he marched calmly with three fellow captives at dawn between armed guards serving as escort. Ryan puffed on a cigar while the angry crowd shook fists and shouted ugly epitaphs. Ahead, he could see the long wall of the adobe building called the slaughterhouse.</blockquote>
<script async="" charset="UTF-8" src="//cdn.embedly.com/widgets/platform.js"></script>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-22519846992205382032016-03-10T11:40:00.000-08:002016-03-10T11:40:11.324-08:00Chasing Napoleon<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2v7vJRRG6OE/VuHM2UWWg_I/AAAAAAAA2Zc/NKLmhc4Wzdk/s1600/223-trafalgar-battle-5-modely-lodi.cz.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="272" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2v7vJRRG6OE/VuHM2UWWg_I/AAAAAAAA2Zc/NKLmhc4Wzdk/s400/223-trafalgar-battle-5-modely-lodi.cz.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br />
Accurate intelligence in the age of sail was a scarce commodity. Accurate intelligence is, of course, scarce at all times but the sea, in the years before radar and radio, let alone satellite surveillance, was an arena of the unknown. The horizon was an impenetrable barrier, the man-of-war, breasting the waves at six knots or so, a ponderous means of extending a captain’s field of vision beyond it. An admiral with a fleet under command could enlarge his supervision by disposing his men-of-war and their attendant frigates at intervals of a dozen miles or so, the maximum distance at which intervisibility and so intercommunication, masthead to masthead, was possible. Even thus, the transmission of news of a sighting was a haphazard business. Admiral Lord Howe, seeking to establish the whereabouts of a French convoy of 139 merchantmen he knew to be nearby, had to quarter the sea for eight days before he brought its escort to action on the Glorious First of June 1794. The interception was rightly regarded as remarkable. The battle took place 400 miles from land at a time when most sea engagements were fought, as they always had been, within fifty miles of the coast.<br />
<br />Admirals, moreover, did not like to disperse their capital ships for purposes of reconnaissance, needing to keep them concentrated for action lest the enemy were met unexpectedly. The need to gather information always had to be balanced against that of keeping firepower massed under the commander’s hand. The strength of a fleet lay not in that of its individual units but in the line of battle, formed bow to stern at intervals of a few hundred feet. Ships isolated were ships exposed to ‘defeat in detail’, or one by one, by superior numbers. Hence the importance of the capital ships’ scouts, the frigates, smaller and swifter sailers which could be sent to and beyond the horizon in search of the enemy.<br />
<br />No admiral ever had enough frigates. The calls on their service were manifold: as despatch vessels, as commerce raiders, as convoy escorts. Such duties chronically depleted the number available as scouts and ‘repeater ships’, which lay close to but outside the line of battle, copying the signals of the flagship, which were often masked by its near neighbours, so that they were visible from van to rear. The scarcity of frigates was odd. As they were much smaller than battleships, a third or a quarter by displacement, carried far fewer men, perhaps only 150 against 800, and cost only a fifth as much to build, it might be expected that they would have been turned out in much larger numbers. Such was not in practice the case. In 1793, at the start of the Wars of the French Revolution, the Royal Navy had 141 first-, second- and third-rates, battleships with between 100 and 74 guns; of fifth- and sixth-rates, frigates of between 44 and 20 guns, it had only 145;1 by 1798, there were still only 200. Little wonder that Nelson, then the Mediterranean admiral, warned that, if he died, ‘want of frigates would be found written on his heart’.<br />
<br />Essential though frigates were as scouts, their value was restricted by the limitations of the signal system then in use. It was not simply that flags – and flags were the principal means of communication – were difficult to discern at long distance, even with a telescope. No comprehensive system of arranging them to transmit information had yet been devised. Various conventions had been in use since the seventeenth century, such as then, for example, hoisting a red flag at the mizzen-top to order a particular manoeuvre. By the late eighteenth century there had been a great deal of elaboration and in 1782 Admiral Howe, then in command of the Channel Fleet, had issued a codebook, superseding many others, which allowed a commander to say 999 different things with three flags and 9,999 with four. Howe’s signal book was not, however, double-entry. The recipient could work out what a signal meant by looking it up, finding the flags picture by picture on the page. The sender, however, had to know what flags he needed to hoist before he composed his message.<br />
<br />
Not until 1801, when Home Popham published his Telegraphic Signals or Marine Vocabulary, were sender and recipient put on equal footing. Popham, a sailor of great clarity of mind, simply had a flash of insight into the obvious which had evaded thousands of other sea officers before him. His achievement compares with that of his near contemporary Roget in compiling the first thesaurus. He analysed how language was used and saw that words might be given a numerical value, to be signalled by a set of numerical flags; 212, for example, could be made to stand for ‘cable’, with the numerical flags 2, 1 and 2. Adding a fourth numerical flag, 3, made the signal read ‘Can you spare a cable?’To make the first signal, the sender looked up ‘cable’ in his double-entry book and chose the appropriate set of flags or ‘hoist’; to read it, the recipient looked up 2123 and got the message. By the use of special indicators it could also be signified that flags had alphabetical rather than numerical value and should be read simply as letters, spelling out an unusual word not in the vocabulary. Popham’s final signal book allowed 267,720 signals to be made with twenty-four flags (of which ten doubled as numbers) and 11 special indicators.<br />
<br />His system remains in use to this day. It was not yet so in 1798, when the Royal Navy still sought to speak fluently between ships through the medium of Admiral Howe’s single-entry book. A great deal of time was wasted, therefore, in frigates closing up to each other or to the main body in order to transmit information unambiguously or to receive precise questions or clear orders. The days when a flag lieutenant could snap his telescope shut and confidently interpret to his superior the meaning of a flash of coloured bunting glimpsed at the extreme limit of visibility on a clear Mediterranean day lay well in the future.<br />
<br />The fallibility of signalling was not a crucial factor in the conduct of maritime operations in the last decade of the eighteenth century. It counted for much less than want of frigates. It counted as a factor, nonetheless, particularly to an admiral like Horatio Nelson, whose mind never rested, who calculated the relative positions of ships and shorelines as a master chess player does pieces and squares, who consumed information of every sort with the compulsion of an addict, who sought decision in battle with the relentlessness of a great financier poised to obliterate his commercial competitors. Home Popham’s signalling system would certainly have assisted him in his searches had it been available; when it became so a very few years later, Nelson enthusiastically embraced it; indeed, the most famous flag signal sent, ‘England Expects’, was made at the opening of the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805, with eight Popham hoists and ‘Duty’ spelt out alphabetically.<br />
<br />On Trafalgar Day Nelson had the combined French–Spanish fleet clear in view. The encounter had come at the end of a long chase which had begun in May, taken him across the Atlantic to reach the West Indies in June, back again to the mouth of the Channel in August, and finally south to the Straits of Gibraltar in September, where he blockaded Cadiz until the enemy put to sea in October. He had had a number of false starts and followed a number of false trails but once Admiral Villeneuve had cleared the Straits of Gibraltar from the Mediterranean and set off into the deep Atlantic, Nelson had been able to make the assumption with some certainty that the French were heading for the West Indies. The campaign of Trafalgar was to prove a triumph of strategic manoeuvre. As an intelligence operation, it was not, at least in its later stages, one of complexity.<br />
<br />The contrast with Nelson’s earlier pursuit, discovery and destruction of a French fleet was extreme. In 1798 Nelson, recently promoted to independent command, was appointed to lead a British squadron back into the Mediterranean, from which it had been absent since late 1796, and to mount watch outside Toulon, the principal enemy naval base in the south of France. It was known that General Napoleon Bonaparte was in command of an army assembling there, that transports were gathering also, under the protection of a French battle fleet, and that an amphibious expedition was planned, directed against British interests. The question was which and where? Britain itself? Ireland? Southern Italy? Malta? Turkey? Egypt? All lay within Napoleon’s operational reach and some, Malta in particular, were stepping-stones to others. Beyond Egypt lay India, where Britain was rebuilding a substitute for the overseas empire lost in North America in 1783. If Napoleon could put to sea undetected, the Mediterranean would swallow his tracks and Nelson would discover where he had gone only when he had done his worst. The menace was guaranteed to perturb a watcher day and night. Nelson was perturbed. Before the French left port he was anticipating their departure for ‘Sicily, Malta and Sardinia’ and ‘to finish the King of Naples at a blow’ but also perhaps for ‘Malaga and [a] march through Spain’ to invade Portugal, Britain’s longest-standing ally. After they left, in late May, he was in hot pursuit, sometimes on the right track, sometimes the wrong, sometimes behind, sometimes ahead, sometimes in the wrong continent altogether. In the end he ran his quarry to earth. The scent had died in his nostrils several times, however, and his own false calculations had led him astray. Not until one o’clock in the afternoon of 1 August, when the lookout on HMS Zealous reported masts in Aboukir Bay, east of the Nile delta, had Nelson reassurance that the chase begun seventy-three days earlier had been brought to conclusion. How it had makes one of the most arresting operational intelligence stories of history.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-62706251050487038372016-03-10T11:34:00.002-08:002016-03-10T11:34:25.811-08:00The Indo-Pakistan Wars – the maritime point of view<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<strong><em>Indian carrier Vikrant played a key role in enforcing a naval blockade over East Pakistan.</em></strong><br />
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<strong><em>Pakistan’s Ghazi was the only long range submarine operated
by either of the warring nations in 1965. The sinking of PNS Ghazi
played a point of turning role in Indian Naval operations in East
Pakistan.</em></strong><br />
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<br />
<strong><em>INS Khukri was a British Type 14 (Blackwood-class)
frigate of the Indian Navy. She was sunk off the coast of Diu, Gujarat,
India by the Pakistan Navy Daphne-class submarine Hangor on 9 December
1971 during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. This was the first warship
sunk in action by a submarine since World War II. It remains the Indian
navy’s only warship to be lost in war to date.</em></strong><br />
<br />
The departure of the British from the subcontinent in 1947 had left
the borders of India and Pakistan demarcated fairly well except in the
west along the Rann of Kutch where the great Indus river loses itself in
a giant swamp with only a few clearly marked outlets into the sea. The
northern portion of the border has always been turbulent owing to the
invasion of Kashmir’s territory by Pakistan-sponsored tribesmen in a bid
to absorb the state, of which the ruler was undecided which way he
should accede in 1947. The subsequent war in 1948 resulted in a
cease-fire line which has been active ever since. Pakistan, which is a
theocratic state, claims Kashmir on the grounds that the population is
predominantly Muslim. India rejects this claim as absurd particularly as
secular India has more Muslims than Pakistan. The attitude adopted by
Pakistani leaders since 1947 has been to focus the attention of its
people on Kashmir as a `burning’ issue, thereby attempting to weld them
together as a cohesive small nation threatened by a big bullying
neighbour.<br />
<br />
In early 1965, the ill-demarcated border in the Rann of Kutch was the
scene of a fire fight which was later taken to the world court for
adjudication. By May of that year, the month before the monsoon breaks,
it was clear to the armed forces of both countries that the possibility
of a conflagration existed and normal states of readiness were raised by
each service according to its own procedures. These realistic steps
were taken by everyone with the full knowledge that the border question
in the Rann of Kutch was a red herring, a minor diversion intended to
distract attention away from the real issue, which was Pakistan’s
attempt to annex Kashmir.<br />
<br />
Immediately after the monsoon began to peter out in northern India,
Pakistani infiltrators in large numbers slipped into Kashmir where their
co-religionists promptly gave them up to the Indian authorities. This
operation, which had been planned and executed in secrecy from Pakistan
over a number of months, failed catastrophically. To pull the chestnuts
out of the fire, a regular Pakistan army blitzkrieg was launched
opposite Jammu, with the intention of cutting the only Indian road link
to Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. The possibility that this strike
would succeed was real. The Indian army leadership had to launch a
counteroffensive opposite Lahore to outflank the Pakistani thrust and
relieve the pressure on Jammu. The war, although anticipated to some
extent as a possible long-term outcome, therefore actually occurred in a
time and place that initially caught the Indians, and later the
Pakistanis, by surprise. The war, as an instrument of state policy, in
this instance, was far from the sea, was fought over disputed territory
and neither side had great staying power economically or industrially.
The stamina of both sides was further reduced by the consequent
international arms embargo imposed at the outbreak of war.<br />
<br />
What kind of a sea war could have influenced this conflict? The
Pakistan navy had a modest destroyer force, was in the process of
inducting one submarine from the US and had its own integral maritime
reconnaissance aircraft. The Indians had a larger navy, centred around
the small carrier Vikrant supported by new anti-submarine and AD
frigates-a navy which was a miniature version of a sea-control navy,
modelled around the British concepts of maritime strategy. Whatever may
have been its operational directives, neither fleet saw action, being
content to protect the areas in which their own merchantmen plied. A
Pakistan destroyer which lobbed a few shells on to the Indian coast in a
high speed night sortie was the one night sensation of the naval war.
Naval control of shipping and contraband control was attempted, but was
not stringent enough to cause substantial economic damage.<br />
<br />
A debrief of the war, certainly in India, showed that the comparative
lack of action at sea had been caused by certain automatic adherence to
a maritime strategy which spoke of sea control, commerce protection and
other well-established principles of maritime warfare, the tenets on
which the sea war in World War II had been conducted. Having been taught
by the British, the Indian navy had also accepted many of the precepts
on which the British Commander-in-Chief of the Navy (on loan to India in
1947-48) had formulated his plans for building the future navy.
Explanations to the non-naval authorities on the undramatic role of the
navy in the war, which ran into arguments on sea control and commerce
protection, were politely disbelieved. Questions on the relevance of sea
power in the kind of conflicts that India would fight in the next 25
years were also raised. These queries could naturally be expected to
have an adverse effect on the allocation of resources for the future
navy. These facts need to be understood as the background for the war
which occurred in 1971.<br />
<br />
Pakistan, which had a western wing and an eastern wing separated by
1,000 miles of India, soon found itself fighting to preserve its unity
as a nation, when the eastern wing wished to secede. The trouble erupted
over the fact that the eastern wing felt economically neglected, a
situation which they felt they could correct if their superior numbers
could elect a majority in the combined parliament. This would influence
the subsequent allotment of cabinet portfolios and allocation of central
resources. West Pakistani elected representatives would not agree to a
straightforward democratic parliament, and the civil strife in East
Pakistan was suppressed with appalling brutality. Over ten million
refugees migrated to India, a number far too large for India to absorb.
When the United Nations and the world seemed unconcerned with the
problem, the only solution appeared to be Indian intervention. This
situation continued for the major part of 1971 after the initial
suppression of civil revolt in the former East Pakistan occurred in
March/April. In this instance, too, the armed contestants on both sides
were fully aware of impending hostilities for almost six months and had
sufficient time to work out detailed strategies.<br />
<br />
The war broke out with a Pakistani attempt to carry out a preemptive
air strike against Indian airfields in the west, and then both sides
executed well-planned orders. All wars are unusual, but this one had its
own special features, especially from the maritime point of view. The
aim of the war would obviously be achieved only by soldiers in the
eastern wing. However, an irrelevant land war would be fought in the
west too, rather like a fishing expedition, to see what territories
could be grabbed for use as bargaining tools at the end of the war.
There were, therefore, two continental wars proceeding simultaneously,
separated by 2,000 miles of ocean. For India it was therefore possible
to exercise the classic role of sea control, encompassing sea denial,
between the wings, but what could be the navy’s role in the wars in the
wings themselves? For Pakistan, a successful defence in the east made
sea communications between the wings an imperative, but this was so
hopelessly impossible that it was not even attempted except by a couple
of blockade runners which were captured and impounded.<br />
<br />
The land war in the east lasted 11 days; the Pakistan navy fought,
knowing it had no hope of help or reinforcement and no route of
withdrawal. The fact that the sea was hostile must have played a major
part in the psychology of Pakistani field commanders in the east.
Although no major sea battle took place, Indian carrier-borne aircraft
crippled or sank all available shipping in East Pakistani harbours.<br />
<br />
The
absence of major battles illustrates the classical Mahanian observation-
that unobtrusive application of sea power achieves the end result in
such an imperceptible fashion that the effect of sea power needs to be
overemphasised for it to be understood. The Indian maritime strategy in
the east was in sharp contrast to the strategy in the west, where an
Indian flotilla of Petya class vessels towing Osa class missile boats
attacked Karachi harbour and sank all vessels encountered there. The
dramatic effect of the `enemy’ main base being battered so captured the
imagination of the Indian government, the bureaucracy, the services and
the people that the navy never had to explain what navies are for! The
Pakistani navy, forever kept short of funds by the ruling army generals,
eventually had a manpower ratio to the army of 1:45, making it the most
unfavourable in the world. This statistic also proclaimed that in the
strategic concepts prevailing in Islamabad in its pursuit to annex
Kashmir, and in the inevitable bloody continental war with India, the
Pakistani navy would play no role.<br />
<br />
The Indians, on the other hand, have continued to build a balanced
navy and should a continental war erupt once more, would have
considerable time and experience in attempting to solve the question of
how a navy can contribute to a continental war. From having learned that
a pure ocean-oriented maritime strategy does not affect the outcome of a
critical land war, India has learned that a pure Mahanian strategy is
not relevant in the context of a land war over disputed territory. Then,
what sort of strategy is? The uneducated section of the country can be
satisfied by some action, any action. This takes care of the largest
interest group- the people. What about the professionals? What about the
pressures generated among the armed forces themselves over the pursuit
and achievement of a common aim? This is a problem with which sea-going
professionals in the subcontinent will have to grapple. It will be
interesting to see what answers are found to all these questions; in
fact, whether any answers will be found at all. What is evident is the
need for a search, which may lead to the answer that other navies in
similar situations also seek.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-55516378468145419702016-01-31T23:37:00.000-08:002015-05-09T23:38:56.992-07:00War Upon The Water – Naval Warfare 1500-Present<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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Historians traditionally subdivide naval history into three
broad eras: The Age of Galley Warfare, the Age of Sail, and the Age of Steam or
Modern Era. The names come from the system used to propel warships—oars, wind,
and steam, whether produced by burning coal or nuclear energy. Other
characteristics, such as weapons and tactics, separate the eras in roughly the
same manner. During the Age of Galley Warfare the main weapons were rams and
infantrymen who executed “land battles at sea.” Projectile weapons were of
significantly lesser importance. The Age of Sail coincided with the development
of gunpowder and cannon, which led gun duels to replace boarding tactics as the
decisive factor in battle at sea. During the Age of Steam smooth-bore cannon
gave way to rifled ordnance that was later supplemented and finally largely
replaced by guided missiles. The Age of Galley Warfare is sometimes called the
Age of Warfare under Oars because the vessels were powered by rowers, usually
slaves. Commanders were more likely to be officers from the army than
specialized naval officers, and the fighters aboard the galley, infantrymen. By
the Age of Sail, the crewmen were mariners of varying levels of skill, often
pressed into service from merchant ships, and commanded by officers in a
separate sea service. Two exceptions to this rule were the “Generals-at-Sea” of
England’ s seventeenth-century Commonwealth period and the army officers called
upon to replace naval officers who had remained loyal to the king during the
early phases of the French Revolution a century and a half later. By the Age of
Steam, naval officer corps became increasingly professional with all that the
term implies.</div>
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At Lepanto, in 1571, the largest sea battle to date and the
last great galley battle, the Holy League of western Mediterranean states
defeated the Ottoman Turks. Henceforth the Muslim power would be confined to
the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In the Far East, where maritime
nations had yet to develop, the oared “turtle ships” of Korea and China
repulsed a Japanese invasion fleet in 1597, marking an end to warfare under
oars in that hemisphere.</div>
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Portugal and Spain held sway as the great imperial and naval
powers from approximately 1450 to 1650. Portugal carved out a massive empire,
with outposts on the coasts of Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, and Spain
laid claim to the entire Western Hemisphere, a division of the world recognized
in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. By 1515 Portugal controlled the Indian
Ocean. Trade between India and Europe shifted from overland routes controlled
by Turks, Arabs, and Italian city-states to the all-water route around Africa
controlled by Portugal. In 1540 Portugal established commercial relations with
China and was setting up trading stations in Southeast Asia. It was Portugal’s
navy that allowed the penetration of the region by its traders. Meanwhile,
Spain developed a great empire in Latin America and used its navy to bar
trading by other countries with the region.</div>
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During the second half of the sixteenth century the northern
European nations of France, England, and the Netherlands mounted a challenge to
Iberian hegemony that resulted in containment of Spain by the French and
English, and Holland stripped Portugal of colonies such as the Cape of Good
Hope and Melaka, where naval power could be brought to bear. Portugal retained
colonies such as Brazil, where sea power could not be decisive, and Spain
acknowledged the right of France and England to establish colonies in North
America.</div>
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England followed its long-running war with Spain (1568–1604)
with two additional series of largely maritime wars, first with the Netherlands
(1652–1654, 1665–1667, and 1672–1674), which resulted in English control of New
Amsterdam and the Cape of Good Hope, then with France (1688–1697, 1701–1713,
1740–1748, 1756–1763, 1778–1783, 1792–1800, and 1803–1815). In the Great War
for Empire, 1754–1763, England, now Great Britain, virtually evicted France
from Canada and India and contained French expansion in the Caribbean. During
the Wars of the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1815, Britain, the sea
power, decisively defeated France, the continental power.</div>
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Concurrent with the ebb and flow of these tides of empire,
other nations entered the balance of power on a regional basis. For varying
periods of time and over various waters of the world, the navies of Catalonia,
Imperial and Soviet Russia, China, and other countries have contended for
power, but never quite supplanted one of the great powers. In restricted areas
the naval forces of still other nations have held sway for varying periods of
time, e.g., the Austrian-Hungarians in the Adriatic Sea; Indians in the Indian
Ocean; the Hanseatic League, Danes, and Swedes in the Baltic; and Barbary
Corsairs in the Mediterranean.</div>
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During the early twentieth century a number of regional
naval powers, particularly Japan in the eastern Pacific, Italy in the
Mediterranean, Germany in the North Sea, and the United States in the
Caribbean, Western Pacific, and even the Atlantic eroded Britain’s command of
the sea. During the twentieth century two world wars eliminated Italy, Japan,
and Germany as contenders for great navies, but the cost of fighting those
conflicts so sapped Britain’s strength that by the second half of the twentieth
century, the U.S. Navy had replaced the Royal Navy as the supreme sea service
of the world.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cIw9StTwKLY/VU77vOSYhtI/AAAAAAAAxT8/urRH6m7IuTA/s1600/9781782741534.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="278" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cIw9StTwKLY/VU77vOSYhtI/AAAAAAAAxT8/urRH6m7IuTA/s400/9781782741534.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b>Technological Change</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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During the middle of the nineteenth century, while Queen
Victoria’s Royal Navy imposed a Pax Britannia on the world, lesser naval powers
led the technological revolution that saw steam-powered, armored-hulled ships
with rifled ordnance firing exploding shells replace wooden-hulled,
sail-powered men-of-war armed with smooth-bore cannon that fired solid shot.
The U.S. Navy’s Stevens Battery of 1843 was the first ironclad warship, the
Russian navy demonstrated the superiority of exploding ordnance when it
destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope in 1853, and in 1861 the Monitor and the
Virginia fought the first duel between steam-powered ironclad warships.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Be they triremes in the ancient Mediterranean,
ships-of-the-line sailing the Atlantic, or aircraft carriers cruising the
Pacific, warships are among the most complex and expensive items constructed by
man. They are so expensive that only relatively large political bodies have the
resources necessary to construct and operate them. Thus warships function as
extensions of states, as agents of power that can be used for multiple
purposes. Virtually all states with seacoasts, and many with large rivers, have
constructed navies. States that are primarily continental or land powers have
traditionally employed their naval forces in conjunction with their armies to
defend their coasts against invasion or to transport troops along coastal
waters, around lakes, and across rivers. When naval vessels ventured far from
home it was to attack enemy commerce or perhaps to raid the enemy’s coast.
Maritime powers, in contrast, depend on waterborne commerce. They use their
navies to protect their merchant shipping and to expand markets for their
traders, to blockade enemy coasts, to transport troops for amphibious
operations, and to support forces deployed overseas.<br />
<br />
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<b>Weapons and Tactics</b></div>
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Each of the great ages of naval warfare had its own
characteristic weapons, and each age was marked by a gradual evolution within
those weapon systems. The earliest battles of warfare under oars involved land
forces fighting at sea by boarding other vessels and defeating its soldiers
much as they would on land. When bronze rams were added to the bows of the
galleys, commanders attempted to ram one another, as in the battle off Alalia
in 535 b.c., the first naval battle for which we have a literary description,
but victory still generally resulted from boarding tactics. As galleys became
larger to accommodate additional rowers to provide the power needed to drive
the ram into the enemy ship, artillery in the form of catapults was adapted for
use at sea, and archers entered military forces on both land and water. Battles
began at longer range with an exchange of projectiles fired by catapults and
archers, but basic tactics changed little as the goal of the projectiles was to
render unable to fight as many of the enemy as possible before the ship was
captured by boarding. Toward the end of the Age of Galley warfare the
Byzantines perfected “Greek fire,” a mixture of crude oil, sulfur or pitch, and
saltpeter that would ignite spontaneously. The carefully guarded secret of the
chemical composition of “Greek fire” was lost, and during the same era
gunpowder was developed, which led to the invention of cast metal cannon. Just
as the battles of Lepanto and the Spanish Armada marked symbolically the end of
the age of warfare under oars and the start of the Age of Sail, so too did they
mark the replacement of boarding tactics as the key element in victory by naval
artillery. When the ships of the Spanish Armada were unable to get close enough
to England’s to board them, and English gunnery began a destruction of the
Spanish that was completed by weather and disease, a new age began.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Gunnery dominated warfare under sail, and tactics reflected
differing views on how best to employ them. Commanders in England’s Royal Navy
sought to get in close to the enemy and hammer his hull until loss of life or
fear of sinking led the enemy to surrender. French commanders preferred to
stand off from the enemy ship and aim at her sails in the hope of so destroying
sails and rigging that the opponent could no longer maneuver, then to close
from such an angle that the enemy could return little fire and would surrender
rather than risk annihilation. English commanders, accustomed to fighting the
French, were surprised when Americans John Paul Jones, Thomas Macdonough, and
Oliver Hazard Perry sought or accepted combat at close quarters and continued
engagements after their flagships were so battered that each one ultimately
sank.</div>
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<br /></div>
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As sail gave way to steam new weapons—torpedoes and
bombs—delivered by new weapons systems—torpedo boats, submarines, and
aircraft—revolutionized warfare at sea. Half a century later missiles replaced
guns as the main antiaircraft, antiship, and antisubmarine weapons, and
aircraft and cruise missiles were used to project power long distances over
land.<br />
<br />
<h3>
<a href="http://www.casematepublishers.com/title.php?isbn=9781909160606" target="_blank"> David Ross at Amber Books</a></h3>
</div>
<br />Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-48507548874096549042015-09-10T00:57:00.001-07:002015-09-10T00:57:40.767-07:00Udaloy class 1155.1<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Statistics:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
total operational: 8
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
NOR<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> 4 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
PAC<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> 4 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
* where available</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
DD Spruance<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> 22 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
DDG Arleigh Burke<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> 34
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
DDG Udaloy<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> 8 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
DDG Sovremenny<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> 9 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
DDG Kashin Mod<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> 1
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Operational ships.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ship<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Verf<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Commission<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Fleet<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
619 Severomorsk<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Dec 86 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>NOR
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 12.06.84. Udaloy-8. Ex-Simferopol; active Northern
Fleet. Refit in June 1998 completing in late 2000. Participating in Kursk salvage operation,
Aug 2001<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
534 Marshal Shaposhnikov<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oct
85 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>PAC <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 25.05.83. Udaloy-7 +. Feb-April 2003 took part in
military exersises in Indian Ocean. Aug 2005
took part in Russian Chinese military exersises.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Admiral Chabanenko<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1999
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>NOR <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 1990. Ex-Admiral Basistiy.Udaloy II-1. chopped to
Northern Fleet after completion of trials in Baltic Fleet, Feb 99; formally
accepted by Russian Navy Mar 99; currently active Northern Fleet. To visit Plymouth, England,
Aug 2002, for Navy Day festivities. 08.2005 took part in military exersises on
Northern fleet.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
687 Admiral Kharlamov<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sep
89 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>NOR <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 7.08.86 . Udaloy-11 +. it was tied up in Boston, MA
in July of 1993.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
605 Admiral Levchenko<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jan
88 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>NOR <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 27.01.82. Ex-Khabarovsk. Refit in November 1999
completing in 2001. Udaloy-9 +<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
548 Admiral Panteleyev<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jul
91 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>PAC <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 28.01.87. Visited Pearl Harbor,
August 1995; active Pacific Fleet. Deployed to Pacific and Indian Oceans,
Jan 2001. Feb-April 2003 took part in military exersises in Indian
Ocean. Udaloy-12 +<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
552 (564) Admiral Tributs<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Aug
85 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>PAC <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 19.04.80. Was in reserve in 1994 and had a machinery
space fire in September 1995, was probably back in service. Operational 2004.
Udaloy-6 +. Feb 2004: official visit to South
Korea and China.
This visit is timed to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the sea battle in
the Russian-Japanese war of 1904-1905<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
572 Admiral Vinogradov<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>#820
Yantar Kaliningrad<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Oct
88 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>PAC <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Laid: 5.02.86. Udaloy-10 +. Active Pacific Fleet; visited Pusan, ROK, in Apr 2000.
Accidentally hit by a practice round from one of Burnyy's AK 630s while in port
on 10 Apr 2000 (no serious damage or injuries noted). Repaired. Deployed to
Pacific and Indian
Oceans, Jan 2001. Acted
as host-sister ship to USS Blue Ridge during the latter's visit to Vladivostok in Aug 2002.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
D. (tons): 6,200-6,700 tons standard</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8,200-8,900 tons full load</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Speed (kts): 30</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dimensions (m): 163.0-164.0 meters long </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
19.3 meters beam</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6.2-8.0 meters draft </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
M./Engine: COGAG: 2 M62 cruise gas turbines, 15,000 shp; 2
M8KF boost gas turbines, 45,000 shp; 2 shafts, 60,000 shp, 29.5 knots; 3'000
n.m/14 kts </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Man./Crew: 296</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Armament: 2 x 4 Moscit(SS-N-22) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(R: 90 n.m; S: 2,5 mach)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8 x 8 Kinzhal (SA-N-9) Total: 64</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(R: 8 n.m; S: 3 mach; r: 10-12'000 m)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2 SA Kortik </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1 x 2 AK-130 DP (130 mm)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4 x 6 AK-630 gattl. AA</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(6x30 mm; 6'000 rds/m/mount) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2 x 4/533 mm Total: 30</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2 x 10 RBU-Udav ASW RL (R: 1'200 m)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Helicopter KA-32 </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Electronics: Radar: MR-700 Fregat-A/Top Plate 3-D air
search, MR-320M Topaz-V/Strut Pair air/surf. search </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sonar: Zvezda-2 suite with MGK-345 Bronza/Ox Yoke bow
mounted LF, Ox Tail LF VDS </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Fire Control: 2 MR-360 Podkat/Cross Sword SA-N-9 SAM
control, 2 3P37/Hot Flash SA-N-11 SAM control, Garpun-BAL SSM targeting </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
EW: Start-series suite with Wine Glass intercept, Bell
Shroud intercept, Bell Squat jammer, 2 PK-2 decoy RL, 10 PK-10 decoy RL</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>[crossreferences |
armament:]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
KA-32 Helix- C Naval helicopter</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SS-N-22 Sunburn / Kh-41 (ASM-MSS) Moskit</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Torpedoes</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Gun armament</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SA-N-11 Grisom / Kortik (Kashtan)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SA-N-9 Gauntlet / Klinok (Kinzhal)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
ASW Udav</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
ASW Udav</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
AK 630</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
AK-130-MR-184</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
FREGAT-MAE Radars</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Design approved in October 1972. Successor to 'Kresta II'
class but based on 'Krivak' class. Type name is bolshoy protivolodochny korabl
meaning large anti-submarine ship. Programme stopped at 12 in favour of 'Udaloy
II' class (Type 1155.1).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Structure: The two hangars are set side by side with
inclined elevating ramps to the flight deck. Has pre-wetting NBCD equipment and
replenishment at sea gear. Active stabilisers are fitted. The chaff launchers
are on both sides of the foremast and inboard of the torpedo tubes. Cage Flask
aerials are mounted on the mainmast spur and on the mast on top of the hangar.
There are indications of a nuclear release mechanism, or interlock, on the
lower tubes of the SS-N-14 launchers.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Operational: A general purpose ship with the emphasis on
ASW. Good sea-keeping and endurance have been reported. Based as follows:
Northern Fleet-Severomorsk, Kharlamov and Levchenko; Pacific
Fleet-Shaposhnikov, Panteleyev, Vinogradov and Tributs. Vinogradov was in
collision in April 2000 but was quickly repaired. Severomorsk deployed to St Petersburg for refit
in June 1998 completing in late 2000, and Levchenko followed in November 1999.
The fourth of class, Zakharov was scrapped after a fire in March 1992. Tributs
was in reserve in 1994 and had a machinery space fire in September 1995, was
back in service in mid-1999 and may again be non-operational in 2001. Udaloy,
Spiridonov and Vasilevsky have been laid up or scrapped. Kulakov has been in
refit since 1990 but may return to service in 2002/03.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On January 28, 1999, the St. Andrew colors were hoisted on
the Admiral Chabanenko BPK large antisubmarine ship, symbolizing that this
major surface fighter was formally commissioned into service with the Russian
Navy. In terms of overall parameters, this ship significantly differs from similar-class
ships. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In a congratulatory telegram to all participants in this
construction project, Marshall Igor Sergeyev, Russia's Minister of Defense,
expressed his profound gratitude to the Yantar shipyard which had managed i in
a complicated economic environment i to complete this project, initially
launched in the late 1980s, and build a ship which fully meets modern
requirements. Igor Sergeyev reminded the audience of the complement of a new
ship constructed under Peter the First's behest: "Under no circumstances
downmast colors in a battle with the enemy." </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The ceremony was attended by Vladimir Yegorov, Baltic Sea
Fleet Commander; Alexander Orlov,
Russian President's Representative in the Kaliningrad Region; Alexei Zherenko, Director General of the Yantar
Baltic Shipyard JSC; as well as Admiral Chabanenko's sons (Andrei and Vladimir)
and granddaughter (Irina). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The history of Project 11551 dates back to the 1970s when
countries possessing "keys to the seas" came to the conclusion that
it was too costly to build large-displacement, single-role combatants.
Consequently, the sea superpowers launched the development of multipurpose
warships. The concept of a multipurpose surface fighter was also contemplated
by Soviet designers. However, a number of production and technological problems
prevented them from actualizing this concept at that time, according to Admiral
Chabanenko's Chief Designer, Valentin Mishin. In the USSR, two different types of
warships were laid down which were designed by the Severnoye Design Bureau:
Project 956 destroyer and Project 1155 large antisubmarine ship. In 1979,
Deputy Chief Designer for Project 956, Valentine Mishin, was appointed head of
the Project 1155 design team. At that time, Udaloi, the lead ship of this
class, was approximately 60 percent complete. Following Udaloy's commissioning
into service, the new Chief Designer began developing an upgrade package to
modernize this series. The first sketches for a new version appeared in 1982.
Similar to Udaloi externally, it was nevertheless a new ship. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The novel features included the Moskit antiship missiles, a
twin 130mm gun, the Udav antitorpedo system and several anti-aircraft systems.
The ship was to be powered by a modern gas-turbine engine and equipped with
more capable sonars, an integrated air defense fire control system, and a
number of digital electronic systems based on state-of-the-art circuitry. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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Working on virtually a new project, the Severnoye Design
Bureau specialists obviously kept in mind the U.S. Spruance and Arleigh Burke
destroyers (the first of the class was commissioned in 1991). Valentin Mishin
says that Admiral Chabanenko, Russia's
only multipurpose warship, does not yield in any way to the Arleigh Burke-class
ships. By some standards, she even surpasses them, despite apparent delays in
commissioning this class into service with the Russian Navy. </div>
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Admiral Chabanenko was laid down at the Yantar Shipyard in Kaliningrad on February
28, 1989, and was launched on December 14, 1992. Complement boarded the ship in
1993. Captain First Rank Igor Bykov was appointed her first commander and took
her out for the first performance trials in 1995. However, acceptance tests
were delayed for several years; five shipyard directors were replaced one after
another during this period. With no chances to be tried at high seas, the ship
landed on financial reefs. The ship, 98 percent complete, was forced to remain
within the shipyard's wall for several years. The hull of the second Project
11551 ship, already assembled by the shipyard, was scrapped. </div>
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There were three more attempts to turn over the Admiral
Chabanenko to the Navy. In 1997, the ship's complement, under the command of
Captain First Rank Mikhail Kolyvushko, conducted a large series of trials,
however, a shallow creek of funding quickly dried out. The ship failed to
complete the State acceptance trials and had to return to the shipyard. </div>
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At the end of 1998, the ship was prepared for the State
trials for the third time. The trials were supervised by Admiral Vladimir Kuroyedov,
the Russian Navy Commander-in-Chief. Non-standard decisions were taken to
resolve technical and funding problems. As a result, the plan of the trials was
fulfilled within the shortest time. According to the ship's commander and Alexander Solomatin, the Yantar representative, the
organization of these trials deserved the highest marks. The trials schedule
was scrupulously followed: fuel, food, water and drones were supplied as
requested and strictly on time. It was the primary task of the Baltic Fleet
responsible for the conduct of performance and firing trials of this new ship.
A submarine, other ships, and aircraft were engaged in the trials for as long
as it was necessary for the Admiral Chabanenko to prove its tactical and
technical characteristics. </div>
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According to Alexander
Brazhnik, Baltic Sea Fleet Chief of Staff and Chairman of the State Acceptance
Committee, all Admiral Chabanenko's systems and armament were tested in the
course of these trials. The ship fired missiles (17 launches), guns, and
antisubmarine mortars. The operation of the ship's air defense system was also
tested with various types of aircraft used as targets. The Kamov Ka-27
shipboard helicopter landed for the first time on the Admiral Chabanenko's
helicopter pad. These missions were flown by a crew headed by lieutenant
colonel Alexander Zherebtsov, who
also helped make photographs of the Admiral Chabanenko at sea. </div>
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This new ship, whose path to the high seas was so long and
complicated, has recently joined the Northern Fleet. After final armament
trials, Admiral Chabanenko will start her Navy service. This large
antisubmarine ship has incorporated all the tactical and technological advances
of the closing age, and can justly be called the warship of the 21st century.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-4216186687870810342015-09-10T00:51:00.003-07:002015-09-10T00:51:57.030-07:00UNDERWATER WAR AT GIBRALTAR <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2mpThg6JXAs/VfE2X-lmJZI/AAAAAAAA1bc/mnUhZikUoJ8/s1600/trojan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2mpThg6JXAs/VfE2X-lmJZI/AAAAAAAA1bc/mnUhZikUoJ8/s320/trojan.jpg" width="216" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>The Olterra redesigned for Human Torpedo attacks</b></i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dqCB4HJteT0/VfE2dsz7t4I/AAAAAAAA1bk/JGV8WoDGqyw/s1600/Frog-210x300.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dqCB4HJteT0/VfE2dsz7t4I/AAAAAAAA1bk/JGV8WoDGqyw/s1600/Frog-210x300.jpg" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><i>Italian Frogman</i></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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In early July 1941, Giuseppe Pierleoni arrived at the French
consulate in Barcelona, Spain, to take up his new duties as a diplomat.
Actually, that assignment was a cover. He was a commander in the Italian Navy,
and he had been sent to Spain to organize and direct sabotage activities
against the British bastion of Gibraltar. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Popularly known as the Rock, the British crown colony is
perched on a peninsula just off the southern coast of Spain in the narrow
entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. A limestone mass rising 1,408 feet above the
water, the fortress is connected to the Spanish mainland by a low, sandy
isthmus a mile and a half long. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Gibraltar was also a naval base, protected against submarine
attacks by heavy steel nets. At any given time, there might be scores of Royal
Navy vessels, from battleships to small boats, nestled in the relative safety
of the harbor. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Commander Pierleoni, dressed in civilian clothes, spent most
of the winter of 1941–1942 building up his sabotage organization in Spain. Then
he was ready to launch his first land-based secret mission against British
ships at Gibraltar. It would be an attack by twelve members of a combat
swimming group known as the Gamma. </div>
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<br /></div>
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According to plan, the swimmers sneaked into a villa in
Spanish territory just north of the Rock. They donned thick woolen
undergarments, neck-to-toe rubber suits, camouflage-net helmets, and breathing
equipment. Just before midnight on July 13, the Italian raiders left the villa
and headed for the beach. Strapped to the back and chest of each man were
five-pound explosive devices known as “bed-ring bombs.” Although small, the
bombs could blow holes in steel plates. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Led by Vago Giari, tough and broad-shouldered with the
proven dexterity of a seal, the swimmers knew they were on a perilous mission.
The Rock was bristling with weapons, and large numbers of sentries were always
on high alert—watching for saboteurs. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Nearing the Rock undetected, Giari and the others could see
the dark silhouette of perhaps thirty Allied ships in the harbor. Each man was
told his own target. Then the swimmers edged noiselessly into the water. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Back on the beach an hour later, Giari and five other
frogmen heard four booms in the harbor. They knew the explosions would not sink
the ships, but would put them out of action for a few months. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The operation was only moderately successful. Bombs were
placed on ships only to have the explosives swept away by the current. Six
swimmers did not return. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Giari was disappointed over the results of the raid and
vowed to return. Two months later, he and another frogman sneaked into
Gibraltar Harbor and badly damaged two British ships. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Now Commander Pierleoni turned his focus toward human
torpedoes, using one of the war’s strangest bases for his operations. It was
the Italian tanker Olterra, which had been scuttled in shallow water by her
captain just inside the Spanish harbor at Algeciras, within sight of Gibraltar.
He had taken that action to keep the ship out of British hands after Italy
declared war against England in 1940. </div>
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Italian Navy Lieutenant Licio Visintini brought to the
submerged ship a human-torpedo crew that had crossed Spain in civilian clothes
and with fake passports. Although Spain was officially neutral, it cooperated
wherever possible with Nazi Germany. So a few Spanish soldiers who had been
assigned to keep an eye on the Olterra were far more interested in scrounging
cigarettes and consuming brandy. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Visintini’s plan was to convert the half-sunken vessel into
a base to launch underwater attacks against ships in Gibraltar Harbor. Keeping
his mission as secret as possible, he told the Spanish soldiers that he was a
civilian engineer who had been sent to try to salvage parts of the Olterra. The
guards shrugged. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Working mainly at night to conceal their activity against
any hostile eyes, the Italians used pumps to empty tons of water from the bow
compartment until it rose out of the water. Then they cut out a door in the
side of the compartment. Torpedoes would be kept in the bow, and when a night
attack on Gibraltar Harbor was ready, they could be passed out of the ship
through the door and lowered with pulleys to the water. </div>
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<br /></div>
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When renovation of the “base” was completed, Lieutenant
Visintini explained to the Spanish soldiers that he was bringing boiler tubes
from Italy by land. They again showed total disinterest. Actually, each crate
contained a twenty-two-foot torpedo. </div>
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<br /></div>
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On December 7, 1942, all was ready for the first
human-torpedo attack from the Olterra base against the closely guarded harbor.
To discourage frogmen or human torpedoes, the Royal Navy dropped explosive
charges into the harbor at irregular intervals. A steel net which could be
lowered when an Allied ship approached, ringed the harbor. </div>
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Hidden by the veil of night, two torpedoes were lowered from
the bow of the Olterra into the water. The Italians called a torpedo a maiale
(pig). </div>
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<br /></div>
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Powered by an almost silent engine, a pig could travel at
about three miles per hour and had a range of ten miles. It could travel on the
surface or dive to a maximum of ninety feet. There was a warhead in the front
section that could be detached by releasing an airscrew. Then the explosive
could be attached to the hull of a ship. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Now Lieutenant Visintini got onto a seat at the front of one
torpedo, and his partner took the rear seat. The back of one seat held steel
cutters (to carve a hole in the harbor’s net) and magnetic clamps to fix a
warhead to a ship’s hull. The man astride the pig in the forward position had
controls for speed, steering, and diving, along with a luminous depth gauge for
use below the surface. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Visintini and his companion cast off and reached the outer
harbor in about an hour. They prepared to use the cutter on the steel net, but
at that moment, the barrier was lowered to allow a destroyer to enter, so the
silent intruders slipped in also. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Explosive charges were placed on two ships, and the human
torpedoes headed back for the point at which they had entered the harbor. One
of the British depth charges killed the two Italians. </div>
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Two weeks later, the bodies of Visintini and his companion
were found inside Gibraltar Harbor. However, the existence of the top-secret
Olterra base, located only a stone’s throw from one of Britain’s most crucial
fortresses, had not been compromised.</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With Gibraltar
defenses on full alert against future penetrations of the harbor, Commander
Pierleoni, the director of sabotage operations from his post as a diplomat in
Barcelona, realized that a change in human-torpedo tactics was necessary. Ships
in the open anchorage around the Rock now would be targeted. </div>
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In the weeks ahead, numerous human-torpedoes from the
Olterra damaged ships at anchor and sunk two of them. Then, on the night of
August 3, 1943, a pig with Lieutenant Commander Ernesto Notari and his
number-two man, Petty Officer Gino Giannoli astride, were beneath their target,
a seven thousand- ton U.S. cargo ship Harrison Grey Otis. Giannoli fixed the
fivehundred- pound charge to the vessel and the pig suddenly went berserk. It
plunged 110 feet deep (three times the maximum depth in training). Then the pig
rushed upward and broke the surface. </div>
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Meanwhile, Giannoli had been thrown from his mount and
surfaced on the far side of the ship. Thinking that Notari had been killed, the
petty officer shivered in the water for nearly two hours. Then he shouted for
help and the startled crew of the Harrison Grey Otis hauled him aboard. </div>
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At the same time, Ernesto Notari, although semiconscious,
was still astride the pig. When his head cleared slightly, he saw that,
amazingly, the engine was still running. Thinking that Giannoli was dead, he
decided to make his getaway on the pig. For more than an hour, his steel mount
edged through the water at three miles per hour. He was fearful that the
phosphorescent wake would attract the attention of the crew of a British patrol
boat. </div>
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However, the gods of underwater saboteurs smiled on Notari.
A school of frolicking porpoises accompanied him all the way back to the
Olterra, providing perfect cover for his wake. </div>
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Back on the Harrison Grey Otis, Gino Giannoli was being
interrogated by British officers when the charge he had attached exploded on
the other end of the ship. The engine room was badly damaged, putting the cargo
vessel out of service for many weeks. </div>
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Minutes later, the handiwork of other human-torpedoes that
had taken part in that night’s operation echoed over the seascape and up
towering Gibraltar. A blast broke in two the ten-thousand-ton Norwegian tanker
Thorshovdi, flooding the bay with a million gallons of oil. The
six-thousand-ton British ship Stanridge was rocked by a third blast. </div>
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Gino Giannoli became a prisoner of war, but all the other
Italians got back to the Olterra safely. However, the young petty officer would
not hold a POW status for long. On September 29, 1943, Italy surrendered and
joined the Western Allies, thereby converting Giannoli from a POW to a partner
with the British.</div>
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<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" target="_blank">LINK </a></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-26350525519842915422015-09-10T00:37:00.003-07:002015-09-10T00:37:38.646-07:00WAR OF THE PACIFIC <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-O_Ed4BLO15g/VfEzEHv_pVI/AAAAAAAA1bI/UovTjwmMHpY/s1600/Huascar1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-O_Ed4BLO15g/VfEzEHv_pVI/AAAAAAAA1bI/UovTjwmMHpY/s400/Huascar1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-m-x3n8YETaw/VfEzMFuXCVI/AAAAAAAA1bQ/EEXzL6iNBaw/s1600/info-huascar3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="191" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-m-x3n8YETaw/VfEzMFuXCVI/AAAAAAAA1bQ/EEXzL6iNBaw/s400/info-huascar3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<i><b>Huáscar is a 19th-century small armoured turret ship of a type similar to a monitor. She was built in Britain for Peru and played a significant role in the battle of Pacocha and the War of the Pacific against Chile before being captured and commissioned with the Chilean Navy. Today she is one of the few surviving ships of her type. The ship has been restored and is currently commissioned as a memorial ship. She is named after the 16th-century Inca emperor, Huáscar.</b></i><br />
<br />
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From 1874 to 1879, the South American nation of Chile
experienced a depression caused by falling copper and wheat prices, a dropping
off of exports, and rising unemployment. The only bright spot in the economy
was the expanding nitrate business, but its mining eventually caused war
between Chile and its neighbors, Peru and Bolivia. Nitrates were mined in the
Atacama Desert along the Chile-Bolivia border. Most of the work was done by
Anglo-Chilean companies, which operated in the Bolivian province of Antofagasta
and the Peruvian province of Tarapaca. An 1866 treaty between Bolivia and Chile
set their border at the 24th parallel, with both countries able to mine
nitrates between the 23rd and 25th parallels; tax revenue collected by either
country along the frontier would be split with the other country. This taxation
arrangement was altered in 1874 when Chile agreed to give up its share of
Bolivian tax revenue in return for a promise that taxes on Chilean profits in
Bolivia would not be raised for 25 years. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Though Chile had no border with Peru, aggressive Chilean
miners pushed into the Peruvian desert to mine nitrates. By 1875, some 10,000
people were employed in mining and subsidiary operations in the Peruvian
Tarapaca desert region. Peru had thus far said little about the Anglo-Chilean
operations in its province, but in 1875 a faltering economy forced the Peruvian
government to nationalize the nitrate companies. The Peruvian government paid
for the companies with government bonds paying 8 percent, payable in two years.
When the bonds came due, the Peruvians were unable to honor their financial
commitments and the bonds’ value plummeted. The Anglo-Chilean companies were
able to absorb the loss of the Peruvian assets, but when the Bolivians
decided in 1878 to raise taxes on the Chileans along the frontier in violation
of the 1876 agreement, the loss of profits was too much to take. Chile refused
to pay the higher taxes even when Bolivia threatened to nationalize the
operations as the Peruvians had done. According to the 1876 agreement, an
arbitrator should have been called in to handle the dispute, but Bolivia
refused. The Bolivian government felt secure in its ability to back up its
threats because of an 1874 secret mutual-defense treaty with Peru, but the Bolivians
failed to consult the Peruvians in advance. In February 1879, Bolivia
nationalized the mining companies, and Chilean troops went into action. On 14
February, they occupied the port of Antofagasta against no opposition; soon
they were in control of the entire province. Not wanting to get involved in the
fighting, Peru offered to mediate a peace settlement. Chile then learned of the
secret treaty and, accusing the Peruvians of duplicity, declared war on them on
5 April 1879. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The combined Bolivian and Peruvian effort appeared daunting,
especially since they had a combined population twice that of Chile, and Peru
had a fairly good navy. However, Chile had a stronger and more stable central
government, a more motivated population, a well-trained army, and a navy armed
with two modern ironclads. Also, the main theater of operations was handier to
Chile; the Bolivians had to cross the Andes, and the Peruvians had to cross the
desert. All three countries were in economic trouble, but Chile was in the best
financial shape and had the assistance of the British because the mining
operations were mainly theirs. Both Bolivia and Peru had defaulted on British
loans and angered the British by nationalizing the companies, so they had no
qualms about supporting Chile. </div>
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The key battle of the war took place at sea on 8 October
1879, when the Chilean ironclads captured a Peruvian commerce raider, the
Huascar, that had been hurting their trade and logistical operations. With
control of the sea, Chile could supply its troops more efficiently, and the
army was soon marching through Bolivian territory into Peru. Bolivia withdrew
from the conflict in mid-1880 when Chilean troops occupied large parts of Peru.
After a difficult battle, the Chileans captured the capital city of Lima in
January 1881, effectively winning the war. Peruvians continued to fight a
guerrilla war for two years, but on 20 October 1883 they gave up and signed the
Treaty of Ancon. The treaty gave Chile the province of Tarapaca forever and two
other provinces for 10 years, after which a referendum was to be held to
determine their nationality. The referendum never took place, but in 1929 the
two countries agreed to return the province of Tacna to Peru, while Chile kept
the province of Arica. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Bolivians signed an armistice with Chile in April 1884,
in which they ceded the province of Antofagasta to Chile, but cession was not
official until 1904, when a treaty was finally signed. That treaty obliged the
Chileans to pay an indemnity and build a railroad from the Bolivian capital of
La Paz to the coast of Arica. The railroad was completed in 1913. </div>
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<br /></div>
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With their army already mobilized, the Chilean government
decided to use it to deal with the Araucanian Indians, a tribe that had been
fighting for their land since colonial times. Hopelessly outnumbered and
outsupplied, after two years the Indians were forced to sign a treaty in 1883
that placed them on reservations, though they were allowed to maintain tribal
government and laws. Chile consolidated the rugged territory that had been the
Araucanian homeland. With Peru bankrupt and Bolivia isolated, Chile became the
strongest nation on South America’s west coast. Control of the area’s copper
and nitrate meant an improving income, but close ties to Britain kept them from
enjoying it totally. Chile decided to honor the Peruvian bonds issued when the
Tarapaca mines were nationalized, and British speculators had been buying them
up ever since Peru could not fulfill them. Thus, the British were able to
control 70 percent of the nitrate production by 1890, as well as profit from
their own construction of banks, railroads, and subsidiary businesses.
Longstanding ties between Britain and the Chilean upper class made the British
acquisition smoother, and some Chileans were able to profit from investments in
British concerns.</div>
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References: Keen, Benjamin, and Mark Waserman, <i>A Short
History of Latin America </i>(Boston: Houghton<i> </i>Mifflin, 1984); Loveman,
Brian, <i>The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism </i>(New York: Oxford<i> </i>University
Press, 1979); Sater, William, <i>Chile and the War of the Pacific </i>(Lincoln:
University of<i> </i>Nebraska Press, 1986).</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-24907982194104151882015-09-10T00:32:00.000-07:002015-09-10T00:32:14.093-07:00Top 10 myths and muddles about the Spanish Armada<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VNHLbvAqW5g/VfEx4KrJfNI/AAAAAAAA1a8/aFEL_is8bh8/s1600/njhygfhnygf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="161" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VNHLbvAqW5g/VfEx4KrJfNI/AAAAAAAA1a8/aFEL_is8bh8/s400/njhygfhnygf.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
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<br />
<h3>
Wes Ulm</h3>
<br />
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
</h3>
<br />
<h3>
Top 10 myths and muddles about the Spanish Armada</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<i>The Spanish Armada encounter of 1588 was undoubtedly an important and
fascinating battle. However, even today it is frequently surrounded by common
myths and confusions that date back to Victorian Era days. The battle itself
was followed by 16 years of land and naval war between England and Spain in
which the Spanish were mostly successful and renewed their control over the
high seas, a basic fact that many texts and popular accounts often fail
entirely to mention. Spain retooled its navy and shipped three times as much
silver in the 1590s as before. The Spanish invasion force, moreover, was never
referred to (by Philip or anyone else in Spain) as the “Invincible Armada”;
medical resources on the Spanish coast were mobilized with surprising rapidity
and effectiveness to tend to sick and wounded returning sailors in 1588,
suggesting that the Spaniards very much were prepared for the potential failure
of the Spanish Armada and run-ins with rough weather. These are just a few of
the common myths and muddles about the Spanish Armada battle; a list of the
“Top 10” myths is compiled and tackled below.</i><br />
<br />
<b>Please feel free to quote from, print, and cite the text below as, </b><i>“<b>Top
10 myths and muddles about the Spanish Armada, history’s most confused and
misunderstood battle</b></i>,” <b>by Wes Ulm, Harvard University personal
website, © 2004.</b><br />
<br />
(1a) <b>Myth</b>: The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 was a decisive
victory for the English that marked England’s triumph in its war with Spain.
Spain never again tried to land forces in England after that, failed in its bid
to end English buccaneering against Spanish treasure ships, and challenged
England only on land, not at sea.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(1b) <b>Fact</b>: False on all counts. The Spanish Armada confrontation was not
at all decisive; it was merely an early sea battle in a long, intermittent, but
often grinding land and naval war between England and Spain that lasted from <b>1585</b>
until <b>1604</b>. As I’ll discuss below, <b>Spain defeated England</b> <b>in
most of the</b> <b>land and naval battles</b> after the Armada and won a
favorable treaty in 1604. Spain, in fact, dispatched <b>three more Spanish
Armadas </b>in the 1590s that were dispersed by storms. Furthermore, in 1595,
the Spanish, in fact, <b>did succeed in landing troops</b> in western England,
where they attacked and burned several towns before disembarking, as will be
detailed below (myth #10a). Of all the common Spanish Armada myths, this
one—the failure to even acknowledge the most basic, incontrovertible fact of
the war that was waged between England and Spain after the Armada—has always stricken
me as the most puzzling. It’s akin to teaching the history of the US Civil War
and halting at the First Battle of Bull Run in 1861, or discussing the Second
World War and stopping at the Fall of France in 1940, without mentioning the
Battles of Midway, El Alamein, Guadalcanal, or the D-Day Normandy invasion at
all! A grossly misleading, terribly incorrect impression of the conflict is
thereby imparted. The key here is to recognize that the Spanish Armada was
merely <b>one battle</b>, an early one in a long war; this simple fact is often
unrecognized and unacknowledged, contributing to many of the other common
myths.<br />
<br />
(2a) <b>Myth: </b>The defeat of the Spanish Armada was the beginning of
England’s control of the high seas. Spain never recovered from the Spanish
Armada fiasco and relinquished control of the ocean lanes to the English.
England’s status as mistress of the seas would be unchallenged for centuries as
the British Empire grew in size, and the vaunted English navy could trace its
dominance of the sea lanes to the Spanish Armada’s defeat in 1588.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(2b)<b> Fact</b>: One of the most common statements about the Spanish Armada,
and one that is totally false. Spain recovered quickly from the Armada debacle
and defeated England on land <b>and at sea</b> in multiple military engagements
in the decade following the Spanish Armada. (In fact, an English Armada sent in
1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, suffered a crushing defeat against
Spain, just as its Spanish counterpart did against England in 1588.) One of the
most important consequences of the Spanish Armada was that it altered
assumptions about naval warfare, since the English at Gravelines had opted for
smaller, rapidly reloading, more maneuverable light coastal defensive ships in
place of the heavy ocean-going galleons with single-firing cannon (followed by
seize-and-grapple tactics) used by Spain. The most eager students of the
English naval innovations and tactics were… the Spaniards. Philip’s post-Armada
squadrons were much more agile and nimble than those prior to it. The Spaniards
developed and implemented an efficient convoy system that enabled them to ship <b>three
times</b> as much gold and silver from the Americas <b>after</b> the Spanish
Armada than before it—indeed, Spain transported more precious metals in the
decade of the 1590s than in any other! England’s buccaneering sea dogs were no
longer able to raid Spanish treasure transports effectively, a fact that was
underscored by the complete failure of a privateering expedition by Sir John
Hawkins and Sir Martin Frobisher in 1589-1590 against Spanish shipping.
Furthermore, both John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake—the most famous of
England’s privateering pirates—were killed in a disastrous raid against Spanish
America in 1595, a multi-pronged attack against Spanish colonies in the
Americas that was anticipated and utterly crushed by Spanish defenses, one of
the worst defeats that the English navy would ever suffer. Spain’s post-Armada
navy was retooled and expanded, and Spain ruled the waves for most of the
1600s; in contrast, by the last year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603,
England remained relatively weak as a sea power, and its maritime strength
during the early years of the Stuart Dynasty (James I and Charles I in the
early 1600s) grew only gradually and haltingly. When Spain was finally replaced
as a naval bellwether in the late 17th century, it was the <b>Dutch</b> who
assumed the mantle of dominant sea power, defeating England in several Anglo-Dutch
Wars of the late 1600s. Only in the <b>mid-1700s</b> does England truly emerge
as the naval power controlling the sea lanes, after victories in consecutive
Anglo-French wars (including the famous <b>French and Indian War</b> with the
Treaty of Paris in 1763, the victory that finally enabled England to dominate
North America and spread its empire on a global scale). <br />
<br />
(3a)<b> Myth</b>: Spain was eclipsed as a great power following the Spanish
Armada, sinking into insolvency and rapid decline, while England became rich,
prosperous, and powerful.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(3b) <b>Fact</b>: Spain definitely did not slip into insignificance following
the Armada defeat. As noted above, Spain in fact defeated England on land and
at sea in numerous battles of the decade after the Spanish Armada and retained
substantial influence over affairs in Europe and the Americas well into the
1600s. Crushing debt afflicted <b>both Spain and England</b> as a result of
their war; by the close of Elizabeth I’s reign, the English were nearly
£3,000,000 in debt and had sold offices and crown lands to avoid slipping
further, and Spain’s Philip II had declared several bankruptcies in parallel.
In addition to the exorbitant expenses in the conflict against Spain, the
English were dragged into a draining, costly, inconclusive guerrilla war
against Ireland from 1594-1603 led by an Irish lord named Hugh O’Neill, the Earl
of Tyrone. Late Elizabethan England also suffered crop failures, famines, and
plagues that engendered severe poverty in much of the country. Most
importantly, the continuation of the war with Spain drained English financial
resources and hindered trade, leaving a severe financial burden for the Stuart
kings of the early 1600s. This debt, in conjunction with the Stuarts’
profligacy, would contribute to the crisis between monarch and Parliament which
caused the English Civil War of the mid-1600s, a particularly bitter and bloody
conflict that would split the nation. As for Spain, the nation was eventually
crippled in the late 1600s by internal corruption, failures in its monarchical
system— marked by feeble rulers with a propensity to play favorites and indulge
prodigally in festivities— and severe inflation caused in part by its precious
metals shipments from the New World. However, in a military sense, the most
decisive defeats it suffered were in the Battles of Rocroi and Passaro against
the <b>French </b>in the 30 Years’ War (1618-1648), not the English. It was
these land defeats that most severely enfeebled Spain as a European power,
enabling the French to replace Spain as Europe’s dominant nation during the
reign of Louis XIV.<br />
<br />
(4a) <b>Myth</b>: The British Empire—in the sense of the long-term settlement
and colonization of distant overseas territories—was initiated following the
defeat of the Spanish Armada, since settlement was now finally opened up to the
English and other northern Europeans.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(4b) <b>Fact</b>: Not by a longshot. Once again, we have to remember that the
war dragged on unsuccessfully for England after the Spanish Armada, and the
country’s resources and seafaring vessels had to be spared for the conflict
against Spain. The failure of the English Armada in 1589, an English-led
expedition to Spain and Portugal, frustrated attempts to break Spain’s naval
power, and the material, financial, and human cost of this defeat prevented
expeditions to North America—probably contributing to the failure of the
Roanoke Colony in what is now Virginia in the United States, which had been
attempted in the 1580s but from which there were no survivors. When the Treaty
of London in 1604 officially ceased hostilities between Spain and England (the
treaty having been signed by England’s King James I, who had succeeded
Elizabeth in 1603), England lacked a permanent settlement in the Americas or
anywhere else. It was only after this negotiated peace that England was finally
freed to begin colonization, following on the heels of Spain, Portugal, and
France.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(5a) <b>Myth</b>: Spain’s King Philip II craved nothing less than the wholesale
conquest of England with the Spanish Armada, and the annexation of the island
country as a colony of New Spain. England would have been converted into a
Catholic nation and, had the Spanish Armada been successful, we’d all be
speaking Spanish today.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(5b) <b>Fact</b>: Philip II had relatively modest goals with the Spanish Armada
and never intended to “conquer England,” let alone convert the English populace
to Catholicism en masse or compel them to speak Spanish. As I discuss in more
detail below in this article’s main text, Philip’s center of attention was on
the <b>European Continent</b>—in fact, his principal enemies were the
Protestant rebels from the provinces of the Netherlands, then a part of Spain,
as well as Protestant French Huguenots and Portuguese nationalists who opposed
Philip’s annexation of Portugal in 1580. England was more peripheral to
Philip’s scheme, and his objective with the Armada was chiefly to stop England
from interfering with Philip’s central aims elsewhere—namely, to cease English
military and financial support of the Dutch insurgents (whom the Protestant
English had been assisting considerably) and to halt English buccaneer attacks
on Spanish treasure ships. Philip certainly did seek to win tolerance for
English Catholics and restore them to a more exalted status but, as discussed
in the text, conditions in England since Henry VIII’s break with Rome had
rendered it virtually impossible for Philip or anyone else to have forced
England to convert back into a Catholic country. There was no viable Catholic
replacement for the Protestant Elizabeth I since Mary Queen of Scots had been
executed in 1587. Moreover, Spain’s problems in the Netherlands, the logistical
issues posed by England’s location as an island nation, and the experience of
Spain’s invading armies on the Continent clearly indicate that even an entirely
successful Spanish Armada invasion in 1588 would have had little cultural
effect on England. <br />
<br />
(6a) <b>Myth</b>: In the Battle of Gravelines, the chief confrontation between
the English defensive fleet and the Spanish Armada, the English won a stunning
underdog victory, having been outnumbered and outgunned by the vastly more
imposing Spanish Armada fleet.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(6b) <b>Fact</b>: The English were neither outnumbered nor outgunned at the
Battle of Gravelines, as is so often claimed. There was a rough parity in the
sizes of the fleets; Spain had more bulky galleons, but England had more total
ships in the water. <br />
<br />
(7a) <b>Myth</b>: The Battle of Gravelines was a titanic clash on the high
seas, one of the largest and most extraordinary naval battles in history. The
English ships inflicted heavy damage on the Spanish Armada vessels while
suffering little of their own, sinking a large number of Spain’s ships and
forcing the Spaniards to flee.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(7b) <b>Fact</b>: The Spanish Armada battle at Gravelines itself was definitely
not a titanic naval clash, but a short, inconclusive, rather anticlimactic
encounter between two large fleets, both of which committed major blunders and
neither of which damaged each other significantly. It’s true that the Spanish
Armada caused little damage to the English ships, but then, neither did the
English ships cause much harm at all to the Spanish fleet, as discussed in the
main text below. It was an unusually ferocious September Atlantic <b>storm</b>
as the Spanish vessels were rounding the tip of Ireland, that damaged and/or
sank most of the Spanish Armada ships that did not return to port, either
directly or in compelling the vessels to beach on the rocky Irish coast. Most
of Spain’s casualties from the Spanish Armada invasion resulted when sailors
died of or were incapacitated from disease and exposure, not from battle
wounds. In any case, most of the Spanish Armada ships <b>did</b> manage to
return to port in Spain or Portugal. Many of the lost ships had already been in
a state of disrepair, while Philip II’s crucial Atlantic class vessels—the most
seaworthy in the Spanish Armada and designed for oceanic traversal, the key to Spain’s
New World empire and the newly conquered Philippines archipelago in the Pacific
Ocean—returned to the Iberian Peninsula largely intact. In fact, excellent
seamanship was displayed by both the English and Spanish sides in their
encounter, and it is quite remarkable that the Spaniards did not suffer greater
losses considering the unremittingly powerful storm they had encountered.<br />
<br />
(8a) <b>Myth</b>: The Spanish Armada was dubbed “the Invincible Armada” (La
Armada Invencible) by an overconfident, swaggering King Philip II of Spain and
his advisors, having been so nicknamed since they all assumed that the Armada
was so strong that it could never be defeated by the English.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(8b) <b>Fact</b>: This tale is repeated with bewildering frequency—and it’s
utterly, absolutely false. The Spanish Armada was never, ever referred to by
King Philip or his Spanish ministers as “the Invincible Armada” (“La Armada
Invencible”); this term was an English invention, not a Spanish one, used by
English historians who later described the battle, yet the term is frequently
attributed to the Spaniards incorrectly. In fact, the rapid mobilization of
Spanish resources upon the return of the Armada ships to harbor in Spain
lucidly demonstrates that the Spaniards had been very much prepared for the
Armada’s potential failure. Populations in coastal towns were rapidly drafted
and quickly responded to aid the often injured and seasick sailors; food
supplies, hospital beds and equipment, and physicians were immediately and
efficiently mustered for the Spanish Armada’s crews, saving hundreds of lives. <br />
<br />
(9a) <b>Myth</b>: The English suffered barely any casualties at all in the
Spanish Armada encounter, celebrating their victory with great revelry
following the departure of the Armada fleet from England’s coastal waters. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(9b) <b>Fact</b>: The English themselves suffered thousands of casualties among
their sailors in the Spanish Armada engagement due to exposure and outbreaks of
infectious disease, and the battle’s aftermath was characterized not by
celebration but by finger-pointing, infighting, and bitter protestations when
many sailors were not compensated for months. <br />
<br />
(10a) <b>Myth</b>: After the Spanish Armada’s failure to invade England, the
Spaniards were never able to successfully land troops on English soil. This was
a continuation of England’s long and remarkable defensive tradition, in which
no hostile military force has ever succeeded in landing troops on the territory
of the English island mainland since the Norman Conquest.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
(10b) <b>Fact</b>: <b>Not true</b>! The claim that England has never suffered a
hostile landing since 1066 is repeated with extreme frequency; and it also
happens to be inaccurate. That’s because in 1595, a Spanish force led by Don
Carlos de Amesquita managed to achieve just that, even though the Spanish
soldiers had not intended such a landing initially. Amesquita’s small force had
been patrolling the waters of the English Channel when they encountered a
scarcity of potable water. Navigating the rough and fickle winds in the
Channel, Amesquita’s troops were blown ashore near Cornwall on the western
English coast. The Spaniards easily intimidated or defeated local militia
resistance and set fire to much of Penzance and surrounding localities while
plundering the hamlets for whatever victuals, nautical aids, and freshwater
supplies that they could find. Eventually the English began to muster a
professional army and summon naval forces under Sir Francis Drake and Sir John
Hawkins, but the Spanish managed to evade their adversaries when Amesquita’s
force decamped and returned home to the Iberian Peninsula— after holding a
traditional Catholic Mass on English soil.<br />
<br />
The rest of this essay fleshes out the material summarized above with greater
detail and a more in-depth picture of the conditions surrounding the Spanish
Armada clash and its aftermath. Intended as a companion to the English Armada
article, this piece cuts through the myths and lays out the facts of the
Spanish Armada battle, still significant in numerous respects as discussed
below, but in ways far more subtle and intricate than are generally
appreciated.<br />
<br />
<b>Please feel free to quote from, print, and cite this essay as, </b><i>“<b>Top
10 myths and muddles about the Spanish Armada, history’s most confused and
misunderstood battle</b></i>,” <b>by Wes Ulm, Harvard University personal
website, © 2004.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-32995917502694768242015-09-10T00:29:00.001-07:002015-09-10T00:29:16.014-07:00Western Colonial Naval Power<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The real technological edge enjoyed by the West in this
period was naval. There was no real equivalent in the non-Western world to
Europe's naval superiority, which bestowed at least three advantages on the
invaders. The first was power projection. If Europe discovered the world from
the fifteenth century, and not vice versa, it was because the capability in the
form of well-built ships had married the motivation to sail forth and conquer.
Navies gave the West strategic reach, a means of passage to the most distant
corners of the earth opposed only by the caprice of nature and the ships of
rival European navies. As A.T. Mahan noted in The Influence of Sea Power Upon
History, 'if Britain could be declared the winner in the imperial race, the
credit, or blame, resided with the superiority of the Royal Navy'. A second
benefit of naval superiority for imperialists was security: In the early days
when Europeans were on the defensive on land, especially in Africa and the
East, they seized coastal enclaves, often islands like Goa, St Louis de
Senegal, Hong Kong or Singapore, which they could defend and supply by sea.
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force multiplier for the British. The British ability to shift their troops up
and down the coast in India was an important element in their victory over the
French there. In 1762, British maritime expeditions sent to punish Spain for
her alliance with France in the Seven Years War seized both Manila and Havana.
In North America, the Royal Navy gave Britain the decisive edge over France, a
country with three times the population and ten times the army: Maritime
expeditions swept up French settlements around the Bay of Fundy in 1710,
captured Louisbourg in 1745 (and again in 1758), and imposed a blockade which,
by stemming the supply of gunpowder, munitions and muskets, began the
unravelling of France's Amerindian alliances as far inland as the Great Lakes,
the Ohio Valley and Louisiana. A seaborne strike in 1759, behind a screen of
men-of-war blockading French ports, allowed Britain to pierce the heart of New
France at Quebec, rescuing what, until then, had been a fumbling campaign of
attrition against the southern glacis of French Canada. And although the French
Navy - La Royale returned the favour twenty-two years later at Yorktown, sea
power had made land operations against New France a leisurely march to a
foregone conclusion. British maritime expeditions had harvested so many islands
of the French Antilles by 1762 that British diplomats attempting to negotiate a
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Dominance of the Pacific was essential for the victory of
the rebellious South American colonies, who promoted Lord Cochrane, a disgraced
Scottish aristocrat, to the rank of admiral, and launched a successful
amphibious assault on Lima, an oasis in the desert, from Valparaiso in Chile in
1820. Foreign corsairs organized a small fleet to assault Spanish ships in the
Caribbean. </div>
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warfare. Lake Champlain and the Richelieu river provided a classic invasion
route into and out of New France. During the Second Seminole War, the United
States Navy operated steamboats on the larger rivers while oared, flat-bottomed
Mackinaw boats, capable of carrying twenty, moved men along the tributaries.
This permitted American troops and volunteers to re-establish their presence in
central Florida, abandoned to the Seminole chief Osceola in 1835. Without the
support of the Russian navy, the string of posts along the Black Sea created to
sever supplies from Turkey to Shamil would undoubtedly have fallen to Murid
attacks. Following the Crimean War, these maritime outposts served as bases of operations
against the Cherkess population of the western Caucasus. British victory in the
Opium War with China (1839-42) demonstrated how relatively small naval forces
could impose their will even on a vast continental empire. Sea power allowed
the British to transform what the imperial court in Beijing viewed as a distant
dispute in Canton into a struggle which directly threatened the economic health
and political stability of the empire itself. Junks and poorly defended Chinese
coastal fortifications offered scant defence against twenty-five Royal Navy
ships of the line, fourteen steamers, and nine support vessels carrying 10,000
troops. With this relatively small force, the British seized four important
coastal trading centres, sailed up the Yangtze River to block the Grand Canal
which carried much of the Celestial Empire's north-south commercial traffic,
and threatened Nanking. This was enough to bring the Chinese to the peace
table. However, in 1884-5 the French were far less successful in employing
their navy to wring concessions from the Chinese when they attacked Formosa
which, clearly, Beijing did not believe vital to its interests. The creation of
a gunboat force was critical in allowing the Celestial Empire to defeat the
Taiping and Nien rebellions, sparked by European encroachment, in the 1860s.
Naval artillery made the walled cities held by the Taipings along the Yangtze
untenable. Gun sampans and eventually gunboats on the Yellow river and Grand
Canal escorted grain convoys, and linked a defensive chain of fortifications
created to keep Nien forces from breaking out across the Yellow river, much as
the British in the Boer War of 1899-1902 used railways to link barriers of
blockhouses built to contain Boer commandos. The French pioneered river flotillas
to advance up the Senegal River toward the Niger from the 1850s.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-60010992871916511112015-09-10T00:23:00.001-07:002015-09-10T00:23:28.264-07:00Urakaze class destroyers<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-taCH0Xs6Ygc/VfEv3bb3-FI/AAAAAAAA1ao/GgQMOH2fhNc/s1600/Japanese_destroyer_Urakaze.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="231" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-taCH0Xs6Ygc/VfEv3bb3-FI/AAAAAAAA1ao/GgQMOH2fhNc/s400/Japanese_destroyer_Urakaze.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The Urakaze class destroyers was a class of
two destroyers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy by Yarrow Shipbuilders of
Scotland. These were the last Japanese destroyers ordered from overseas
shipyards</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The failure of Japanese shipbuilders with
the Umikaze-class destroyers left the Japanese navy without a large destroyer
capable of extended blue ocean operations. The Parsons steam turbines of the
Umikaze-class were plagued with maintenance issues, as well as tremendous fuel
consumption. The navy then returned to its previous mainstay for new technology
and equipment, Yarrow shipyards in the United Kingdom, ordering two vessels to
a new design in the 1911 fiscal budget.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">However, Yarrow, along with other British
shipyards, had a large backlog of orders, and it was not until 1915 that the
new vessels could be completed, and due to the outbreak of World War I, not
until 1919 before Urakaze was turned over to Japan.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The Urakaze class vessels made use of
oil-fired Brown-Curtiss turbine engines, and had the distinction of being the
first vessels built for Japan to be designed for use without coal. The initial
design called for diesel engines, however, due to the outbreak of World War I,
Yarrow could not obtain necessary gear components from Germany.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Armament was slightly less than that of the
Umikaze classes, with a single QF 4.7 inch Gun Mk I – IV mounted on a small
shelter forward and four QF 3 inch 12 pounder guns, two amidships, one of the
stern, and one mounted on a tall pedestal just aft of the smokestacks. The
Urakaze class was also the first Japanese class of destroyers to use the 533-mm
diameter torpedoes.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Urakaze was turned over to the Imperial
Japanese Navy too late to see combat service in World War I. It was used for
many years in patrols on the Yangzi River. It was retired in 1936, and used as
a training vessel for the Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Forces. It was sunk in
an air attack by United States Navy aircraft on July 18, 1945. It should not be
confused with the later Kagero class destroyer Urakaze of World War II.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Due to a strong request from the British
government, Kawakaze was sold by Japan prior to completion to the Regia Marina
of Italy. Italy was one of the Allies of World War I, and faced a severe
shortage of modern warships. Kawakaze was completed as Audace, and later
renamed San Marco, and saw considerable combat service in the Mediterranean.
During World War II, it was captured by the German Kriegsmarine, and renamed
TA20. It was sunk on November 11, 1944 near Venice in the Adriatic Sea. It
should not be confused with the later Shiratsuyu class destroyer Kawakaze of
World War II.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-38445917754599935902015-08-09T01:24:00.000-07:002016-11-18T05:30:47.646-08:00Russian Naval Operations WWI<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-KludMZGdAKE/VccN8nP1z9I/AAAAAAAA03U/vV5nGuVFTx8/s1600/adi.sized.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="271" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-KludMZGdAKE/VccN8nP1z9I/AAAAAAAA03U/vV5nGuVFTx8/s400/adi.sized.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BoKD4v9YbqM/VccODGGngVI/AAAAAAAA03c/P1-SnAC8v9E/s1600/nhgfghhgfgh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="270" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BoKD4v9YbqM/VccODGGngVI/AAAAAAAA03c/P1-SnAC8v9E/s400/nhgfghhgfgh.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i><b>Russian Battleship Slava</b></i></div>
<br />
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In 1914 and 1915, the British navy contained the German navy
on the North Sea. The story was similar in the Mediterranean. The British,
working with the French, exercised a somewhat loose control in the fall of 1914
that tightened in May 1915 when Italy joined the Allies. The Austrian navy
posed a threat from its bases along the Adriatic coast but it was so badly
outnumbered that its ships remained at their moorings for the next four years,
except for several raids.</div>
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<br /></div>
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While on the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Aegean the Allied
navies were superior to the forces of the Central Powers, the Germans did carry
out one successful operation with two cruisers, the battle cruiser Goeben and
the light cruiser Breslau. The two warships eluded Allied patrols on their way
to Istanbul, which they reached at the end of August. The German government
donated the ships to the Ottoman Empire as part of its effort to recruit
another ally. The German cruisers were reflagged as Ottoman ships but retained
their German officers and crews. The donation played an important part in the
Ottoman decision to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers in October
1914. The German ships also played an important part in defending Istanbul from
attack by the British and French from the west and the Russians from the north
and east. While the Russian navy controlled the Black Sea, its inferior ships
were not a match for the Goeben and the Breslau.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Russian naval forces improved over the course of 1915, yet
at no point were they able to contemplate action against Istanbul. This was
mainly for reasons that had to do with geography and technology. Istanbul is
situated at the eastern opening of the narrow, fortified waterway that connects
the Black Sea to the Aegean. Not only were the German cruisers still
formidable- so were the fortifications along the straits. The closure of the
straits had serious economic consequences for Russia. Merchants in Russia's
southern ports were not able to export grain to markets overseas, nor were they
able to import needed war supplies. Russia's northern ports remained open for
commerce but ice closed them for most of the long winter. While Russia
controlled its coastal waters, including the Black Sea, it was effectively
blockaded by the Ottoman Empire's decision to join the Central Powers. </div>
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<br /></div>
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The Russians had ports on the Baltic, to the north, but the
German navy controlled the outlets to the North Sea. Even so, the Germans had
little success on the Baltic. The Germans chose to send their best ships to the
North Sea, leaving a smaller force of old ships on the Baltic. The Russians,
who had lost many ships in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, had a numerical
advantage on the Baltic, but everyone recognized that, should the Germans
choose to shuttle ships from the North Sea to the Baltic, the Russians would
face a formidable enemy. They responded by employing their ships in defensive
positions, particularly around the capital, St. Petersburg, and by laying
extensive minefields. The Baltic became a stalemate that was different in one
key respect from the North Sea, where the British successfully blockaded
Germany: the Germans were still able to use the Baltic Sea to transport goods.
Sweden became a key trading partner with Germany, supplying the Germans with
iron ore and other essential goods.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The lessons learned at Tsushima resulted in some positive
changes in the navy. The draft period for sailors was reduced to five years,
the officers corps was renewed by the influx of new officers, and proposals
were outlined to increase the fleet's budget. The State Council of Defense and
the recently created State Duma were, however, not inclined to allocate funds
to restore the navy. The Naval Department delayed building new battleships
until 1909, and comprehensive renewal of the fleet's equipment was put off
until 1913. According to government plans for 1908-1914, Russia had scheduled
the construction of eight battleships, four battle cruisers, ten light
cruisers, 53 destroyers and 30 submarines. Two light cruisers and six
submarines were intended to augment the Siberian Flotilla, which replaced the
Pacific Fleet in the Far East. A special naval committee was established to
organize the construction of the large turbine destroyer Novik (1910-1913),
which then set the trend for many future innovations in shipbuilding.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The projections and construction of the ships met the very
highest requirements. Battleships of the Sevastopol-class, with a displacement
of 26,000 tons, had a top speed of 24 knots and were armed with twelve 305
millimeter guns; 356 millimeter guns were designed for battle cruisers of the
Ismail-class. The submarines of the Morzh and Bars-classes were designed to
maintain a speed of sixteen to eighteen knots, each armed with twelve torpedo
launchers.</div>
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<br /></div>
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However, new ships were commissioned only in the second half
of 1914, and the majority, only between 1915 and 1917. With outdated equipment,
the training of skilled crews, which in the Russian Navy had always been given
the very highest priority, acquired even greater importance. Improvements in
tactical training and maritime studies were assigned to Admiral Nikolay Essen,
successor of the traditions of Lazarev and Butakov. Navigation under a variety
of weather conditions, opening skerries and channels, and high level gun and
torpedo training were all taught at the school. Great efforts to secure combat
readiness were made by Admirals Lev Brusilov, Alexander Liven, Alexander Rusin,
Andrey Ederguard, and Genrikh Tsyvinsky.</div>
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<br /></div>
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In the years preceding the war, the Naval Cadets Corps and
Naval Engineers' School turned out midshipmen who were then promoted to
officers' ranks for service in the Mediterranean. In December 1908, during one
such cruise, the seamen of the battleships Slava and Tsessarevitch, the
cruisers Bogatyr and Admiral Makarov, and the gunboats Gilyak and Koreyets were
the first to assist the Italian town of Messina after it suffered an
earthquake. A special medal was designed to commemorate the event.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Eventually the Nikolayevsky Naval War College was granted
full independence. Among the classes for officers was a specialized navigation
course, and among the training units was the Training Detachment of Underwater
Navigation. In 1910 at Sevastopol the Officers' Aviation School was opened for
the preparation of maritime aviation. The graduates of the school were
instructed in flying the M-5 seaplane, which, after 1915, operated from
air-carrying transports - the predecessors of present-day aircraft carriers.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Baltic</b></div>
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By the outbreak of World War I, the Russian Baltic Fleet,
with its four pre-dreadnought battleships, was outmatched in size by the German
fleet, which possessed thirteen of the latest dreadnoughts along with other
ships. Using mainly minefields and coastal batteries, the Russian Navy was
assigned the special task of protecting the Gulf of Finland. Mines were planted
on the very eve of the declaration of war, 18 July 1914. Due to the persistence
and energy of Admirals Nikolay Essen and Viktor Kanin, a minelaying detachment
under the latter's command laid 2,124 mines in only four hours, thus barring
the entrance to the Gulf of Finland. However, the German Command concentrated
its main forces against the British in the North Sea, restricting itself in the
Baltic to occasional operations by its force of cruisers-raids that were, for
the most part, unsuccessful.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On the night of 13 August 1914, one of the best German
cruisers, Magdeburg, ran aground in the fog on the reefs off Odensholm Island.
The Russian sailors from the Pallada and Bogatyr captured the Magdeburg's
commander and 56 crewmen. The most valuable items confiscated were signal logs
and code tables that were later used for decoding radio transmissions
throughout the entire war.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In late September, at the mouth of the Gulf of Finland, the
German submarine U-26 torpedoed the cruiser Pallada. The explosion detonated
the ship's ammunition, and within a few minutes the cruiser disappeared into
the water along with all 597 crewmembers. Following the tragedy of the Pallada,
Admiral Essen ordered that all ships be escorted by destroyers. Furthermore, he
ordered the shifting of operations to the southern area of the Baltic, closer
to the German sea lanes. Under Admirals Ludvig Kerber, Viktor Kanin, Captain
Alexander Kolchak and others, the detachments of cruisers and torpedo boats
laid 1,500 mines in enemy waters. Germany's armored cruiser Friedrich Karl,
four mine-sweepers, and fifteen steamships were subsequently destroyed and the
cruisers Augsburg and Gazelle seriously damaged.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the spring of 1915, the commander of the Baltic Fleet,
Admiral Essen, died of pneumonia. Vice-Admiral Kanin, who replaced him,
expanded the zone of the fleet's operations, strengthened the defenses at Aland
and Moonsund Islands, and took control of the Gulf of Riga. The German U-26
sank the mine-layer Yenisei, but three months later she herself struck Russian
mines and sank in the Baltic.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Organized by Signal Officer-in-Chief Adrian Nepenin and
Commander Ivan Rengarten, radio intelligence proved invaluable to Russian
seamen in the Baltic; by using it Rear Admiral Mikhail Bakhirev and his cruiser
brigade managed to intercept the German detachment of Commodore Karf on 19 July
1915, as it returned from planting mines off Gotland Island. In the ensuing
battle the cruisers Admiral Makarov, Boyan, Bogatyr and Oleg sent the cruiser
Augsburg into retreat and forced the damaged mine cruiser Albatross to run
aground. Under Captain Alexander Pyshnov, the cruiser Ryurik severely damaged
the German cruiser Rhoone, forcing it to withdraw.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In late July 1915, the situation in the Baltic Sea changed
radically. The German Command decided to transfer half its fleet to the Baltic
to break through to the Gulf of Riga and destroy the Russian ships anchored
there. Under the command of Vice-Admiral Eggard Schmidt, numerous
mine-sweepers, fifteen German battleships, three battle cruisers eleven
cruisers, and 56 destroyers approached the Irben Strait. This German armada was
held in the Strait for ten days by the comparatively outdated Russian
battleship Slava, under Captain Sergey Vyazemsky. Supported by the armored
gunboats Khrabry and Grozyaschy and several destroyers, the Slava repulsed all
enemy attempts to break through the minefield. On the night of 4 August,
Schmidt sent his newest large destroyers, V-99 and V-100, into the Gulf, where
they were met by the destroyer Novik under Captain Mikhail Berens. In the short
battle that followed, the Novik damaged both German ships, and V-99 was driven
into the minefields, where she struck a mine and sank.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The German dreadnoughts Nassau and Pozen managed to force
the Slava aside and enter the Gulf of Riga, where Admiral Schmidt lost the
destroyer S-31. Russia's only loss was the gunboat Sivuch, commanded by Captain
Pyotr Cherkasov. The Sivuch had fought in the darkness for nearly an hour in an
unequal battle with the cruiser Augsburg, two destroyers and the newly-arrived
Nassau and Pozen. The heroic vessel fought to the last, then sank under the ensign
of St. Andrew. The year closed in the Baltic to the accompaniment of exploding
Russian mines, striking the enemy cruisers Bremen, Danzig, Lubek and the
destroyers V-191 and S-177.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In May of 1916, the submarine Volk, commanded by Captain
Ivan Messer, destroyed three German transports, while, with the destroyers
Novik, Pobeditel and Grom, Rear Admiral Alexander Kolchak sank the enemy
auxiliary cruiser German in the Norrkoping Gulf. The Germans attempted to
attack the Russians at the mouth of the Gulf of Riga in October, but this
retaliatory action proved to be a disastrous miscalculation. Of Captain
Viting's eleven newest destroyers, seven struck mines and sank.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Black Sea</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Before dawn on 16 October 1914, sudden explosions were heard
at the port of Odessa and off the coast of Sevastopol. The Commander-in-Chief
of the allied German-Turkish Fleet, Rear Admiral Wilhelm Suschon, decided to
surprise the Russian seamen with another attack similar to the one at Port
Arthur. At Odessa the Turkish destroyer Gairet fired a torpedo that sank the
gunboat Donets, while, off Sevastopol, the battle cruiser Geben forced the
sailors of the minelayer Prut to scuttle their vessel. A bold attempt by
Captain Vladimir Trubetskoy to stop the Geben with a division of small destroyers
failed because the leading destroyer, Lieutenant Pushchin, became seriously
damaged at the outstart. The Geben began to shell the Sevastopol but was driven
off by shore batteries and the older battleship Georgy Pobedonosets.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The success of this surprise attack by German and Turkish
forces was largely due to new restrictions imposed by the military-political
leadership on the Commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Admiral Andrey Ebergard.
The Black Sea Fleet was superior in strength, but the large and fast Geben
proved to be an important advantage to the German-Turkish Command.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The primary mission of the Black Sea Fleet was to blockade
the Bosporus and Zongulak, a region that produced coal for fuelling ships. From
October 1914 to February 1915, Admiral Ebergard made ten voyages to the
Anatolian coast with a total squadron of five battleships, cruisers and torpedo
boats. Having planted mines on the approaches to the Bosporus, the Russian
sailors sank fourteen Turkish steamships and over 50 sailing vessels. On 5
November 1914, Admiral Suschon once again tried to take the Black Sea Fleet by
surprise, but this time the German attempt failed. Under Captain Valery
Galanin, the flag battleship Evstafy hit the Geben with the first salvo and
forced her to retreat.<br />
<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After a failed attempt to cross the Dardanelles in early
1915, the English and French landed a large force on the Galliopoli Peninsula.
This would have allowed the Russian troops to land in the Bosporus and
radically alter the outcome of the war with Turkey. However, the Russian
landing did not take place because of poor cooperation between the allies and
the weakness of the Russian High Command, which did not effectively coordinate
the actions of its army and navy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Only three times, in the spring of 1915, did the Black Sea
Fleet bombard fortifications in the Bosporus from the battleships Tri
Svyatitelya, Panteleymon and Rostislav. On its March voyage to the Bosporus,
the seaplane carrier Emperor Nicholas I saw its first military action, while
aircraft carriers patrolled the coast and shelled enemy batteries.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In retaliation for the bombardment of the Bosporus, Suschon
decided to fire upon Odessa, but the cruiser Madzhidie was blown up and sunk by
Russian mines. The Geben was also damaged by a mine and consequently rendered
temporarily inoperable.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 27 June 1915, the submersible mine-layer Crab, commanded
by Senior-Lieutenant Lev Fenshow, planted 58 mines off the Bosporus. Later, in
July 1916, the officer in charge, Captain Vyacheslav Klochkovsky, directed the
Crab's mine laying expeditions in the mouth of the Strait. For his success in
these operations, Klochkovsky was awarded the golden sword of St. George.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In August 1915, during the Battle of Kefken, the submarine
Nerpa, together with the destroyers Pronzitelny and Bystry, under Captain
Trubetskoy, attacked a Turkish convoy consisting of the cruiser Gamidie, two
destroyers and four transports. All enemy transports were sunk, while the
escort ships barely escaped.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the campaign of 1916 the submarine Tulen, under
Senior-Lieutenant Mikhail Kititsin, distinguished herself when she destroyed
and captured six steamships, three launches and 21 sailing vessels. In
September 1916, Kititsin attacked the heavily armed German transport Rodosto,
forced it to surrender and towed it to Sevastopol. In September 1915, Admiral
Ebergard hoisted his flag on the Empress Maria, the fleet's newest dreadnought,
for its first campaign against the Turks; the powerful ship was fully capable
of competing single-handedly against the Geben. On 24 January 1916, the Empress
Maria appeared at the head of the fleet off Zongulak, but remained in a
screened position since the main blow was delivered by eleven seaplanes from
two seaplane carriers. Lying at the pier, the Turkish steamship Irmingard was
sunk during the bombardment.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the summer of 1916, energetic Vice-Admiral Alexander
Kolchak took command of the Black Sea Fleet. Under his leadership, exit from
the Bosporus was almost completely blocked by Russian mines. Constantinople
remained without coal, and passage out of the Strait became difficult for all
German cruisers and submarines. Under Admiral Kolchak's command, the naval
approaches to Varna were also mined. In October the cruiser Pamyat Mercuria,
under the flag of Rear Admiral Kazimir Porembsky, and the destroyer Pronzitelny
destroyed the supply of oil left in Constantsa by the retreating Rumanians.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However, the Black Sea Fleet also suffered significant
losses. The destroyers Lieutenant Pushchin and Zhivuchy struck enemy mines and
sank. Especially devastating was the loss of the Empress Maria at Sevastopol
after an onboard explosion on 7 October 1916.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1917</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Russian sailors not only fought in the Baltic and Black Seas
but also in the Mediterranean and Pacific. By 1914, together with Allied ships,
the Siberian cruisers Askold and Zhemchug had already begun escorting
transports and pursuing German raiders. The campaign ended badly for the
Zhemchug. After hoisting the British ensign and mounting a false funnel, the
German cruiser Emden, took the Zhemchug unawares and sank her at the port of
Penang. The Zhemchug's Commander Ivan Cherkasov was reprimanded and demoted for
his carelessness.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The fate of the Askold proved more fortunate. In late 1914
she was already fighting in the Mediterranean, and in December, commanded by
Captain Sergey Ivanov, the Askold captured the German transport Haifa and
destroyed two Turkish steamships. During the next year the Askold joined the
newly formed Allied British-French fleet to fight in the Dardanelles. In 1915, the
cruiser sailed approximately 17,000 miles. In late 1916, after repairs at
Toulon, the Askold joined the Arctic Flotilla.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This flotilla emerged from the detachment formed in
September 1914 to defend the port area of Arkhangelsk. A new port, Romanov-on-Murman,
was constructed on the shore of the Gulf of Kola and became the terminus of the
railway that extended into the polar region. Thus, a convenient and secure
communication link was established between Russia and the Allies. The recently
formed Arctic Flotilla aimed to ensure the protection of this vital searoute
and included ships from the Pacific Fleet: the Chesma, which had been purchased
from Japan, and the cruiser Varyag [Viking]. The Siberian Fleet contributed the
minelayer Ussury and six destroyers. Afterwards, Vice-Admiral Ludvig Kerber was
appointed Commander-in-Chief over the northern fleet. The first Russian naval
success in the far North was on 20 October 1916. The destroyer Grozovoy, under
Lieutenant Korneyev, sank the German submarine U-56 in a battle in the Barents
Sea.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By early 1917, the Russian fleet was again a formidable
force and included 558 combat ships, a number of launches, and over 500
auxiliary transport vessels. In construction were fifteen battleships, fourteen
cruisers and 269 naval planes. The personnel of the Fleet totaled 168 thousand
officers and men.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However, the political crisis in February 1917, immediately
affected the Navy's efficiency. In February 1917, Emperor Nicholas II abdicated
and the Provisional Government came to power. At Helsinki and Kronstadt, the
largest Baltic ports, sailors began to riot. Dozens of admirals and officers
were killed, including the Commander of the Baltic Fleet, Vice-Admiral Adrian
Nepenin, and the Chief Officer of the Port of Kronstadt, Admiral Robert Viren.
The effectiveness of the Baltic Fleet fell sharply. Germany took advantage of
the political turmoil in Russia and began a series of attacks aimed at the
weakest link in Russia's fleet, its submarines. Within a short time six had
been destroyed, including the Bars, Lvitsa, Gepard and Yedinorog.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In late September Germany undertook a large-scale landing
operation on the Moon Sound Islands. Vice-Admiral Eggard Schmidt arrived with
more than 300 vessels carrying 25,000 assault troops. The Commander of the
Baltic Fleet, Rear Admiral Alexander Razvozov, could call up only two
battleships, three cruisers, three gunboats and 21 destroyers under
Vice-Admiral Mikhail Bakhirev. Nonetheless, the smaller Russian force mounted
strong resistance to the German squadron. Unlike the army, the navy remained
loyal to the increasingly embattled Russian government.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In Kassar Bay the Eleventh Destroyer Division of Commander
Georgy Pilsudsky distinguished itself in battle. Fighting alongside the gunboat
Khrabry, the destroyers Pobeditel, Zabiyaka, Konstantin and Grom resisted an
attack by thirteen German destroyers and the battleship Kaiser. The Grom was
lost in the fight, but while under enemy fire, the Khrabry, managed to break
through to the burning Grom and save her crew. Lieutenant Anatoly Waksmouth was
the last to leave the deck of the Grom. At Kassar Bay Russians damaged six
German destroyers while three others-B-98, B-111 and S-64- struck mines and
were damaged.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In an unequal fight at Kuivaste the 4-gun battleship Slava,
under Captain Vladimir Antonov, fought the German dreadnoughts Koenig and
Kroneprinz, each armed with ten 12-inch guns. The Slava had to be scuttled
because of the damage it incurred during the battle. However, the enemy could
not intercept the Russian ships retreating from the Gulf of Riga, and the
Battle of Moon Sound ended.<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Battle of Moon Sound was the last fought by the Russian
fleet under the ensign of St. Andrew. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Black Sea Fleet of Vice-Admiral
Kolchak maintained its morale and continued to blockade the enemy's coast until
the summer of 1917, when revolutionary upheavals reached the Black Sea.<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In Petrograd, on 25 October 1917, Vladimir Lenin and his
Bolshevik cohorts seized power. The new government brought the war to a close,
and, in December 1917, an armistice was signed with Germany. By the Decree of
the Council of People's Commissars, 29 January 1918, the Russian Fleet was
declared dissolved and the creation of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Fleet was
proclaimed.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-53442279300823596312015-08-09T01:17:00.001-07:002015-08-09T01:17:33.736-07:00Copenhagen 1807 – British Punching Bag!<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-50ZIYv_ECLw/VccMKUA7RfI/AAAAAAAA03A/3fDmIka-2Qw/s1600/dca53563c0c67e206824f410382aad6d.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-50ZIYv_ECLw/VccMKUA7RfI/AAAAAAAA03A/3fDmIka-2Qw/s400/dca53563c0c67e206824f410382aad6d.jpg" width="306" /></a></div>
<br />
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Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">There followed a grim affair that showed Britain at her most ruthless.
Copenhagen was largely built of wood and the combination of red-hot shot and
the use of the newly invented Congreve rocket soon turned the city into an
inferno. Firing began on the evening of 2 September, and five days later the
exhausted Danes surrendered. At least 2,000 civilians were dead, but the
British had secured their immediate objective: for the loss of a mere 250 men,
the entire Danish fleet had been neutralized - fifteen battleships and a number
of smaller vessels were got away to England, while several other ships were
torched in their docks. Also taken was a considerable quantity of naval stores.</i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-GDBJnajqX-U/VccMjGVZFTI/AAAAAAAA03I/VCk8gKUjDto/s1600/Valby_Bakke_-_Bombardement_of_Copenhagen_1807.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="238" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-GDBJnajqX-U/VccMjGVZFTI/AAAAAAAA03I/VCk8gKUjDto/s320/Valby_Bakke_-_Bombardement_of_Copenhagen_1807.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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On the one hand, Napoleon stood supreme on land. By common
consent, the army he led at this point was the very best and most effective
that France ever fielded in the whole period from 1792 till 1815. The European
powers had one by one been humbled and forced either to beg for mercy or to
curry friendship. By means of the Continental Blockade, the emperor could hope
at the very least to inflict substantial damage on Britain and even to force
her to make peace. And yet on the other, London remained absolutely unbowed.
Not only had the ineffectual ‘Ministry of all the Talents’ been replaced by the
Portland administration, but by June 1807 the latter was showing signs of
putting up a real fight. In an important but unsung step, the Cabinet raised
the rates payable to the owners of vessels hired as military transports, and in
this fashion raised the tonnage available to the government in this area from
115,000 tons to 168,000 in a mere four months. The regular army was swelled by
the recruitment of 25,000 volunteers from the militia, whose ranks were then
made up by the authorization of fresh ballots. The first division of what was
intended to be an army of 34,000 men was dispatched to the Swedish enclave of
Stralsund; and Prussia and Sweden were all promised substantial financial
support. On 27 June the new Foreign Secretary, George Canning, and the Prussian
ambassador to London signed an agreement which promised the latter’s government
£1 million in payments spread over a period of one year if it would in exchange
put every man that it could into the field against the French; equally, Sweden
got a promise of £ 50,000 per annum. Already in receipt of a British subsidy
that had been agreed in 1805, Russia got considerable quantities of arms as an
extra as well as an ambassador who was a popular figure in the Russian capital
and had much experience there. And finally, a new envoy was also dispatched to
Vienna with a clear promise that a declaration of war would lead to substantial
British support.</div>
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If any further proof of the Portland administration’s
commitment to the struggle is needed, it may be found in the Danish affair of
July- September 1807. It was learned in London that a large French army was
massing on the borders of Holstein with a view to marching on Copenhagen and
forcing the Danes either to join Napoleon or to surrender their fleet.
Whichever turned out to be the case, the end result was the same in that French
seapower would be swelled by the addition of twenty or more warships. Also
likely to suffer were Britain’s communications with the Baltic and with them
her chief source of naval supplies. This being something that London could
hardly view with equanimity, it was therefore immediately resolved that a
British fleet should sail to Denmark. With them went 18,000 men while orders
were sent to the 12,000 men that had already gone to Stralsund to join them
immediately. On 30 July the first British ships anchored off Copenhagen, and a
British envoy went ashore with promises of an alliance if the Danes would only
surrender their ships to Britain’s protection. An alliance, however, was
meaningless, and the Danes knew it: even 30,000 British troops were hardly
likely to be able to save Denmark from invasion and conquest, while just a day
after the British had arrived a message had been received from Napoleon that
left the Danish government in no doubt that they must join him or face war.
With the frontier only a few days’ march away, the future Frederick VI - he was
at this point only Prince Regent - decided to try to make a fight of it until
such time as the French sent help, and therefore defied the British.</div>
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Given this answer, there was nothing for it but to open
hostilities. Invading Zealand, the British blockaded Copenhagen and on 29
August routed a relief column at Kioge, an action notable chiefly for being Sir
Arthur Wellesley’s first taste of action since his return from India. But time
was pressing, and the defenders of the Danish capital showed no signs of
cracking. Determined to secure the Danish fleet, the British therefore resolved
to bombard them into surrender. There followed a grim affair that showed
Britain at her most ruthless. Copenhagen was largely built of wood and the
combination of red-hot shot and the use of the newly invented Congreve rocket
soon turned the city into an inferno. Firing began on the evening of 2
September, and five days later the exhausted Danes surrendered. At least 2,000
civilians were dead, but the British had secured their immediate objective: for
the loss of a mere 250 men, the entire Danish fleet had been neutralized -
fifteen battleships and a number of smaller vessels were got away to England,
while several other ships were torched in their docks. Also taken was a
considerable quantity of naval stores. This, of course, meant the end of Danish
naval power: in theory, the ships concerned were supposed to be returned to
Copenhagen with the coming of peace, but few survived the war and the money and
resources that might have formed the basis for the construction of a new fleet
were lacking. As for the Baltic, it was now brought firmly under British
control in naval terms: after this second Danish tour de force on the part of
the Royal Navy, there was no appetite to take it on in the messrooms of its
Russian counterpart, and no way that Napoleon could mount a direct challenge to
its ships himself.</div>
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But Copenhagen also came at a terrible price. In the first
place, the ruthless treatment of the Danes did not sit very comfortably
alongside some of the loftier flights of British rhetoric and, in fairness,
prompted much disquiet at home, while at the same time handing Napoleon a
wonderful propaganda weapon. ‘We shall,’ as General Paget wrote, ‘henceforth be
dubbed the nation of Saracens instead of the nation of shopkeepers.’ Given that
in the end Britain could only hope to defeat Napoleon through the formation of
a powerful continental coalition, this was most unfortunate, and all the more
so as unfavourable contrasts could always be drawn between the alacrity with
which Britain had suddenly found plenty of men and ships to intervene in
Denmark and the way in which she had dragged her feet on other occasions. And,
finally, even in the short term the expedition had not achieved all its goals.
The Danish fleet was safe, certainly, but Copenhagen had also been Canning’s
response to the Franco-Russian accord that had been agreed at Tilsit. We should
remember that at this point it was not known for certain in London whether this
was a simple peace settlement or an alliance. In the first place, then, we see
a veiled threat: what could be done at Copenhagen could also be done - the
Russians might infer - at St Petersburg. But it was accepted that Alexander
might simply have been coerced into surrender by Napoleon. By establishing a
base in Zealand - as the British troops did not sail away with the Danish navy Canning
therefore hoped to persuade the tsar to rejoin the fight and even send troops
to Denmark himself. But in all this, Canning had badly misjudged the situation. </div>
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Alexander had always seen himself as the champion of the smaller states of
central Europe, and in any case had no desire to risk another Friedland.
Meanwhile, he had also just acquired a new foreign minister in the person of
Count Nicolai Rumiantsev, who was the son of one of the greatest heroes of
Catherine the Great’s wars against the Turks and as such convinced that Russia
should not be fighting Napoleon but rather marching on Constantinople. Bitterly
anti-British, indeed, he had been a fierce opponent of the Third Coalition. In
short, all Canning had achieved had been to drive Russia even deeper into
Napoleon’s arms.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-23947547947262985282015-07-15T06:22:00.002-07:002015-07-15T06:22:36.311-07:00Sir Peter Parker<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-m9gAUkfe9qE/VaZejBaEp2I/AAAAAAAA0b4/uZWjGIDu98s/s1600/800px-Sir_peter_parker_NMM.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-m9gAUkfe9qE/VaZejBaEp2I/AAAAAAAA0b4/uZWjGIDu98s/s400/800px-Sir_peter_parker_NMM.JPG" width="245" /></a></div>
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(1721–December 21, 1811)</div>
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English Admiral</div>
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Parker is best remembered for commanding the ill-fated
expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, in 1776. Intensely brave and a
fine sailor, he overcame this defeat to serve as Admiral of the Fleet and was a
patron of the famous Horatio Nelson. </div>
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Peter Parker was born probably in Ireland in 1721, the son
of Adm. Christopher Parker. After serving several years aboard ships as a cabin
boy, he followed his father into the naval profession by becoming a lieutenant
in 1741. Parker then served with a succession of warships in the Mediterranean
and elsewhere, rising to captain in 1747. His first command, the small frigate
HMS Margate, returned to the Mediterranean for two years before sailing home at
the conclusion of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1749. Parker was
subsequently placed on half-pay and stationed ashore until 1755, when he
directed construction of the HMS Woolwich at Bristol. He then conducted that
vessel on several successful cruises before returning to half-pay status at the
end of the Seven Years' War in 1763. Parker spent the next decade ashore,
receiving a knighthood but scarcely any employment. In 1773, he was placed at
the helm of the 50-gun vessel HMS Bristol and, three years later, received
control of a small naval squadron with the rank of commodore. Parker then
departed England for service in American waters during the Revolutionary War. </div>
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In February 1776, Parker sailed from Plymouth en route to
North Carolina. He conveyed seven army regiments as reinforcements for Gen.
Henry Clinton, with whom he would rendezvous off the Carolina coast. Bad
weather interrupted his journey for several weeks, and it was not until May
1776 that his squadron reached its destination. Parker and Clinton united for
the purpose of landing and establishing a safe haven for numerous Loyalist
sympathizers in the region. These forces were supposed to secure a landing zone
for the fleet in advance, but in the wake of their defeat at Moore's Creek
Bridge, this proved impractical. Parker and Clinton then decided to hit a
secondary target, the South Carolina capital of Charleston, which was rumored
to be lightly defended. Its seizure would facilitate the reconquest of the
South and serve as a rallying point for thousands of Loyalists. </div>
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Charleston was, in fact, imperfectly defended. Its major
fortification was a small fort on Sullivan's Island in the harbor, commanded by
Col. William Moultrie. He directed a small garrison of 26 guns and 430 men.
Another 600 riflemen were stationed at either end of the island. The fort itself
was only half-finished, being covered with sand and newly sawed palmetto logs.
Based on initial appearances, Sullivan's Island did not appear capable of
putting up much resistance. Parker and Sullivan certainly concurred when they
anchored off Charleston on June 1, 1776. The British armada consisted of nine
warships carrying 280 guns, as well as an invasion force of 2,500 soldiers.
However, the British lacked navigation charts, and nearly four weeks lapsed
before soundings could be taken and the battle commenced. The Americans put
this respite to good use by shoring up Sullivan's Island, awaiting the
inevitable onslaught. </div>
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On the morning of June 28, 1776, Parker's squadron entered
the harbor and expertly assumed bombardment positions. The fleet then ladled
the American position with a heavy concentration of solid shot and exploding
mortar balls. Much to the surprise of both sides, little damage was inflicted
upon Moultrie's fort. The sand embankment absorbed much of the exploding shells
while the spongy wood of the palmetto logs did the same to the round shot. By
comparison, Moultrie's gunners kept up a steady stream of heated balls at
Parker's vessels, damaging several. One round cut the cable of Parker's
flagship, and it drifted around, permitting a raking fire. Numerous shots
killed and wounded virtually everybody on the quarterdeck while the crew worked
furiously to right the vessel. Parker himself had a very close call when a
red-hot ball tore most of his clothes off, burning him. Clinton, meanwhile,
tried to land boatloads of troops on the island, but he was repulsed by the
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Worse, three frigates were grounded, and one, the HMS Acteon, became
lodged and had to be burned. After a lopsided engagement of 10 hours, the
twice-wounded Parker finally conceded defeat and withdrew. British casualties
numbered upward of 250 men; the Americans sustained just 12 killed and 25
wounded. The defeat at Charleston, minor in military terms, subsequently became
a tremendous symbolic victory, a rallying point for the entire nation. </div>
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Parker's squadron limped back to New York, where it joined
forces with Adm. Richard Howe. In this capacity he participated in the landing
of British troops on Long Island in August 1776, which resulted in the American
abandonment of New York City and vicinity. That December, Parker conveyed
Clinton on another expedition against Newport, Rhode Island, which was quickly
seized. He remained on station there for several months, until the rank of rear
admiral was conferred on April 28, 1777. The following June he gained
appointment as commander in chief of Jamaica, and two years later he was
promoted to vice admiral. Parker ventured back to England in 1782, conveying
the captured French Admiral de Grasse and several of his officers. For his
Revolutionary War services he was made a baron. Parker remained in the service
for many years thereafter, rising to admiral in 1787 and also serving as
commander in chief of Portsmouth Harbor in 1793. There he struck up a cordial
relationship with a young naval lieutenant, Horatio Nelson, the future victor
of Trafalgar, and facilitated his early career. Parker was one of the foremost
mourners at Nelson's state funeral in 1805. By the time Parker died in London
on December 21, 1811, he had been elevated to Admiral of the Fleet following
the death of Lord Howe. Parker's unfortunate defeat off Charleston was but a
minor episode in a long and distinguished naval career, but it is the incident
for which he is best remembered in America.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Bibliography</b>
Bearss, Edwin C. The Battle of Sullivan's Island and the Capture of Fort
Moultrie. Washington, DC: Division of History, Office of Archaeology and
Historic Preservation, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, 1968; Farley, M. Foster.
"Battering Charleston's Walls." Military History no. 6 (2000): 38-45;
Ireland, Bernard. Naval Warfare in the Age of Sail. New York: Norton, 2000;
Lambert, Andrew. War at Sea in the Age of Sail: 1650-1850. London: Cassell,
2000; Miller, Nathan. The Age of Fighting Sail, 1775-1815. New York: Wiley, 2000;
Ralfe, James. The Naval Biography of Great Britain. Boston: Gregg Press, 1972;
Reid, Ronald D. "The Battle of Sullivan's Island." American History
33, no. 5 (1998): 34-39, 70-72; Stokely, Jim. Fort Moultrie: Constant Defender.
Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1985; Syrett, David. The Royal Navy in
American Waters During the Revolutionary War. Columbia: University of South
Carolina Press, 1998; Tilley, John A. The British Navy in the American
Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1987; Tracy,
Nicholas. Navies, Deterrence, and American Independence: Britain and Seapower
in the 1760s and 1770s. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1988.</div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-5709748031158590332015-07-15T06:19:00.001-07:002015-07-15T06:19:05.193-07:00NUSHIP Canberra, Australia’s massive new warship<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The Canberra Class Amphibious Assault Ship (LHD), also known
as a Landing Helicopter Dock, project will provide the Australian Defence Force
with one of the most capable and sophisticated air-land-sea amphibious
deployment systems in the world.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These 27,000 tonne ships will be able to land a force of
over 2,000 personnel by helicopter and water craft, along with all their
weapons, ammunition, vehicles and stores.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Characteristics</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The largest ships ever built for the Royal Australian Navy,
the LHDs are being built as a collaboration between Navantia and BAE Systems -
Maritime.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The construction is being done using the modular approach
whereby the ship is divided into modules, which are built and fitted out as
discrete units, before being welded together to form the completed ship. This
allows the ship to be built at a number of different sites across the shipyard
before being brought together for final joining.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Construction of the hull to the level of the flight deck,
including the majority of fitting out will be undertaken at Navantia's
Ferrol-Fene shipyard in north-west Spain. The hull will then be shipped to
BAES' Williamstown shipyard in Victoria for the installation of the island
structure. The island modules will be constructed at a number of sites around
Australian before being moved to Williamstown for final installation on the
flight deck.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The ship's roles are to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>embark, transport
and deploy an embarked force (Army in the case of the ADF but could equally be
an allied Army or Marines), along with their equipment and aviation units, and</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>carry out/support
humanitarian missions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Therefore the requirement is for a multipurpose ship able to
operate in both these roles, but not necessarily simultaneously, owing to the
differing configuration requirements.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first LHD, named HMAS Canberra, is due to be
commissioned in 2014 and the second ship, HMAS Adelaide, is planned to
commission in 2016.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The ship is a conventional steel mono hull design with the
superstructure located on the starboard side of the flight deck. There are four
main decks: the Well Dock and Heavy Vehicle Deck for heavy vehicles and/or
cargo; Main Accommodation Deck, including the Primary Casualty Reception
Facility (PCRF); Hangar and Light Vehicle Deck for light weight vehicles and
cargo; and the Flight Deck.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The LHD has been designed with the shallowest possible draft
to allow her to operate in secondary ports and harbours as well as manoeuvre
tactically in the shallow waters common in the littoral regions. Maximum speed
is in excess of 20kn with a range of 6,000nm, a sustained maximum speed of 19kn
under full-load conditions and an economic cruising speed of 15kn with a range
of 9,000nm. She can also reverse with full directional control at up to 8kn.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The LHD has a stern ramp/door that provides access to the
well dock for landing craft and vehicles along with a fixed ramp (steel beach)
between the well dock and the heavy vehicle/cargo deck (1,410m2). Additionally
two lateral ramp doors are located on the starboard side and provide wharf
access to the heavy vehicle/cargo deck for vehicles up to 65T. Vehicular access
between the heavy and light vehicle decks is achieved via a fixed ramp located
on the port side.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The well dock is 69.3m long and 16.8m wide (1,165m2) and the
LHD will normally carry four LCM 1E. An additional four RHIBs can be carried
behind the LCM 1Es, however this will be mission dependant rather than a normal
load out. The well dock has been designed to handle water craft of allied
nations, including LCUs, amphibious vehicles and LCACs.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The main accommodation deck is located above the well dock
and heavy vehicle/cargo deck and includes crew accommodation, mess decks,
medical spaces, galley facilities, office spaces, and recreation rooms.
Accommodation is provided for 1400 personnel; approximately 400 ship’s company
including the watercraft and flight deck crews and 1000 embarked force personnel
including the PCRF, embarked flight, HQ staff and landing force. The LHD will
be jointly crewed with personnel from Navy, Army and the Air Force forming the
ship’s company.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The LHD's flight deck is 202.3m long and 32m wide (4750m2),
allowing the ship to operate a range of ADF rotary wing aircraft including:</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MRH90 helicopter</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>CH-47 Chinook
helicopter</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Blackhawk
helicopter</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>S-70B-2 Seahawk</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Armed
Reconnaisance Helicopter</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Romeo Seahawk</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The flight deck has been configured with six spots on the
port side for medium sized aircraft such as the NRH 90 or Blackhawk, which
allows for simultaneous takeoff and landing operations; alternatively it can
support simultaneous takeoff and landing operations of four CH-47 Chinooks.</div>
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There are two aircraft elevators – one aft of the flight
deck and one fwd of the island on the stbd side - that can accommodate medium
sized helicopters, with the after one able to accommodate larger helicopters
such as CH 47. Both aircraft elevators service the hangar and light
vehicle/cargo deck and the fwd elevator is dual-roled for stores and personnel.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Between the flight deck and the accommodation deck is a
contiguous hangar and light vehicle deck; the hanger (990m2) occupying the
after section of the deck whilst the light vehicle deck (1880m2) is located on
the forward section of the deck. The hanger can accommodate up to 8 medium
sized helicopters with 18 medium sized helicopters able to be accommodated if
the light vehicle deck is also used.</div>
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<br /></div>
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There is a cargo lift that can be used to transfer 20-foot
ISO containers and vehicles up to a weight of 16 tonnes between the heavy and
light vehicle decks. There are also lifts for ammunition, provisions and
casualties. Up to 110 vehicles, depending on the size and configuration, can be
loaded across the two vehicles decks.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Command and Control (C2) and Combat Systems will consist
of:</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Combat Management
System</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Extensive ICT
infrastructure to support the ADF’s Command Support Systems and provide C2
capability for the embarked force</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3D Air Search
Radar</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Helicopter Control
and Surface Radar</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Navigation Radar</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>IFF capability,
including Mode S</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ESM/ECM Suite</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Integrated
communications system (internal and external), including a Message Handling
System, Link 11 and 16, civil and military Satellite Communications</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Electro Optical
and IR surveillance systems</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Integrated
Navigation System, including an integrated bridge, navigation sensors, AIS and
WECDIS.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The LHD will be fitted with a number of defensive systems
including:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Anti-Torpedo Towed
Defense System (Nixie)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Four 20 mm
automated guns</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>6 x 12.7 mm
machine guns</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Active missile
decoy system – Nulka (weight and space reserve)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Major Statistics</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Length Overall
230.82m</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moulded Beam
32.00m</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Beam Waterline
29.50m</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Flight Deck height
27.50m</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Draft at Full Load
Displacement 7.08m</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Full Load
Displacement 27,500 tonnes</div>
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The LHD utilises an electric drive system similar to that
used by major cruise companies such as Cunard. The propulsion/generating plant
includes the following main elements:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One gas turbine
(LM 2500) turbo generator of 19,160kW</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two MAN 16V32/40
diesel generators of 7,448 kW each</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two Siemens
azimuth POD units of 11.0 MW each fitted with two propellers of approx 4.5m
diameter</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two bow thrusters
of 1,500kW each</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One
Progener-Mitsubishi S16MPTA emergency diesel generator of 1,350kW</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.hmascanberra.com/history/nushipcanberra.html" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra-class_landing_helicopter_dock" target="_blank">
</a><div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra-class_landing_helicopter_dock" target="_blank"><br /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra-class_landing_helicopter_dock" target="_blank">
</a><div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra-class_landing_helicopter_dock" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-316785508648526702015-06-17T23:53:00.000-07:002015-06-17T23:53:09.773-07:00Teddy’s Navy I<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span lang="EN-GB">No one understood the implications of Mahan
and Turner better than Theodore Roosevelt, who in a brief but vigorous lifetime
had direct experience both in the frontier West and in the Navy Department. To
Roosevelt the prospect of America isolated and confined in a world of predator
nations was anathema. Together with Lodge, Secretary of State John Hay, and a
handful of others in government, Howard Beale has observed, he “plunge[d] the
nation into an imperialist career” in 1898 “that it never explicitly decided to
follow.” The pugnacious young “TR” believed that a man just wasn’t a man
without a six-gun and a nation just wasn’t a nation without a fleet of
battleships. Should the nation be forced to go to war with either European
meddlers or hemispheric predators, a large steel-clad, big-gun navy, he argued,
would allow it to emerge “immeasurably the gainer in honor and renown. . . . If
we announce in the beginning that we don’t class ourselves among the really
great peoples who are willing to fight for their greatness, that we intend to
remain defenseless, . . . we doubtless can remain at peace,” but “it will not
be the kind of peace which tends to exalt the national name, or make the
individual citizen self-respecting.” In an amoral world of nations maneuvering
incessantly for power, prestige, and position, peace could be preserved only by
periodic threats of sword and gun. “If we build and maintain an adequate navy
and let it be understood that . . . we are perfectly ready and willing to fight
for our rights, then . . . the chances of war will become infinitesimal.” </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">But the navy could not be simply defensive
and reactive; it had to be the spearhead of a vigorous, healthy national empire
that stretched to the ends of the earth. “Every expansion of a great civilized
power,” Roosevelt wrote at the end of 1899 in a typically Mahanian tone, </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">means
a victory for law, order, and righteousness. This has been the case in every
instance of expansion during the present century, whether the expanding power
were France or England, Russia or America. In every instance the expansion has
been of benefit, not so much to the power nominally benefited, as to the whole
world. In every instance the result proved that the expanding power was doing a
duty to civilization far greater and more important than could have been done
by any stationary power. </span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Although Europeans that year generally
viewed the upstart Yankees as bullies who exploited Spanish imperial weakness
to grab a modest Asian and Caribbean empire, the citizens of the United States
were convinced that they had rescued the hapless peoples of Cuba, Puerto Rico,
the Philippines, and even Guam from the yoke of oppression and that the navy
had been the chief instrument of righteousness. All the nightmarish scenarios
of helpless men in thrall to whimsically exploding machines that had emerged
from the Sino-Japanese conflict evaporated during the euphoria of victory in a
“splendid little war” over a chivalrous if incompetent and often disheartened
opponent. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Unlike the earlier clash off the China
coast, the Spanish-American War was fully reported throughout the Western world
and thus became the first naval conflict of the industrial age that both the
public and the experts understood. The dominant perception was of industrial
man’s mastery of his creations. Well-handled warships run by well-trained crews
were no menace to anyone but their enemies. Such an impression helped stifle
initial public concern in the United States and abroad that the loss of Maine
might have been due to faulty industrial technology. The ensuing naval triumphs
over Spain convinced the Americans and Europeans that the ship’s destruction
had been an act of Spanish sabotage.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Although in 1898 shipborne radio was still
some years in the future, “for the first time in naval history, a government
directed the action of distant ships at sea, communicating by telegram” to
Commodore George Dewey at Hong Kong and later Manila and to Admiral William T.
Sampson and Commodore Winfield S. Schley at Key West and Cuba. When Sampson
finally found Admiral Pascual Cervera’s fleet huddling inside Santiago harbor,
he ordered that his major warships take turns illuminating the channel at night
with searchlights. “It was the first such use of light by naval forces.” </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">But contemporary observers were less
impressed with the use of the new technology of electricity for communication
and illumination than with the overall power of the modern warship and, above
all, the technical competence displayed by the American seamen in running it
efficiently. At Manila Bay, Dewey coolly brought his small squadron through the
minefield off Corregidor in the dead of night and early the next morning
quickly maneuvered his handful of steel and steam cruisers and lesser war craft
into a coherent battle line against the few enemy warships lurking behind the
guns of the narrow Cavite Peninsula. Already under steady but wildly inaccurate
bombardment, Dewey calmly informed Olympia’s captain, “You may fire when ready,
Gridley,” and after seeing his gunners methodically pulverize the enemy, he
withdrew and sent the men to breakfast. The supposedly hellish elements of the
battle—stokers locked and crammed into dark, feverishly hot propulsion
compartments with hissing steam pipes, clattering engines, and roaring
furnaces—in fact did not bother the men involved at all. According to one participant,
the engine-room crew aboard the cruiser Baltimore spent the time when not
engaged in answering orders and moving dials smoking cigars, chewing tobacco,
and “swapping yarns.” Only one man died (an engineer suffered a heart attack),
a few wounded, and the casualties were understandably obscured by total
victory.26 Thousands of miles from home and help, Dewey nonetheless proceeded
to fend off by bluff and bluster the handful of European warships that soon
arrived to scrounge for any potential imperial scraps they could lap up, thus
preserving Manila Bay and the entire Philippine archipelago for Yankee
occupation. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Off Santiago some weeks later, Schley ably
handled his small squadron of battleships and cruisers. As Vice Admiral Pascual
Cervera y Topete’s cruisers emerged from the harbor, Schley chased them down
and mortally wounded them one by one after a spirited run that in this instance
did demand the final ounces of energy from the poor devils who toiled away
passing coal and tending boilers in the engine rooms of Iowa, Indiana, Oregon,
Texas, New York, and Brooklyn. When the last Spanish cruiser captain
despairingly crashed his vessel against the rocks of eastern Cuba, America had
won itself a modest Caribbean empire to go with its new holdings in East Asia.
Almost as an afterthought, Washington finally annexed the Hawaiian Islands,
which had been under the control of a planter “republic” for the previous five
years. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The same American writer who only weeks
before had questioned the safety of battleships was now ecstatic. “Military
prowess passed away from Spain many years ago, and her organization to manage
the modern ship, composed principally of machinery, is wretchedly deficient,”
Hollis told his readers. The U.S. Navy, on the other hand, understood the value
of “education and technical training to a specific end” and had triumphed.
Sailors, officers, and marines had performed superbly in their highly technical
tasks of machine tending. If the war with Spain had demonstrated anything it
was that the United States needed more battleships of every type. The cost
would be high, but “these ships are well-nigh impregnable, and they must
continue to hold their own as our main reliance for offense and defense.”</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-43640486926651440782015-06-17T23:52:00.001-07:002015-06-17T23:52:31.647-07:00Teddy’s Navy II<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QeHyDa65NOY/VYJqozVJiYI/AAAAAAAAzmw/g-0m1rzO61E/s1600/Teddys_Great_White_Fleet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="148" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QeHyDa65NOY/VYJqozVJiYI/AAAAAAAAzmw/g-0m1rzO61E/s400/Teddys_Great_White_Fleet.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The establishment of the U.S. Naval
Institute and Naval War College demonstrated that the U.S. Navy was undoubtedly
the most progressive and least hidebound sea service in the world when the
twentieth century began. But America’s naval destiny was not at all obvious on
the eve of the war with Spain or, indeed, for many years thereafter. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">For all its potential strengths, the
officer corps was demoralized. It should occasion little surprise that, for all
its progressive attitudes toward leadership, Annapolis was home to the sons of
what critic Peter Karsten has labeled “the nation’s business and political
elite of their age.” The generally high social position enjoyed by midshipmen
entering Annapolis at the beginning of the twentieth century ensured that most
if not all harbored serious professional ambitions. But promotion was based
strictly on seniority and was extremely slow. When a new personnel law was
finally enacted in 1899, “many ensigns up to 11 years in grade, and lieutenants
of 22 and more years seniority were promoted.” In these mournful circumstances,
few officers could be expected to maintain a consistently high professional
interest, and it was to their lasting credit—and a reflection of the intrinsic
fascination of their profession—that such a large proportion in fact did so.
Still, the system was a scandal, and all knew it. Reform was imperative, and by
1916 the navy had developed a system based on commanding officer fitness
reports; examining, promotion, and retirement boards; and in extreme cases
military courts. It was probably the fairest method that could be devised,
although one critic caustically characterized it as “election, rejection, and
selection.” </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The slow pace of reform ensured a certain
snobbish and hidebound attitude among many Annapolis graduates who vigorously
fought efforts to enlarge the size and background of the officer corps by
permitting enlisted men to seek commissions. Not until 1901 were provisions
made to appoint up to a half dozen warrant officers a year to the rank of
ensign, and only then if there were vacancies to fill after the commissioning
of all academy graduates. Thirteen years later, Woodrow Wilson’s aggressively
democratic secretary of the navy, Josephus Daniels, shepherded legislation
through Congress providing for the selection of as many as fifteen enlisted men
per year for admission to Annapolis, and thereafter the number gradually grew.
Some writers have also criticized the Annapolis men for an excessive adherence
to traditional warships and warship designs in the face of new realities such
as the torpedo and the limited width of the Panama Canal that would in the
future clearly circumscribe the historically dominant role of the battleship. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Nonetheless, the gradual reform of the
promotion system reflected a wider movement for progress that paralleled the
changes instituted by Jacky Fisher in the Royal Navy. Between 1901 and 1909
William S. Sims, Bradley A. Fiske, Homer Clark Poundstone, and a handful of
others successfully agitated for major improvements in gunnery and ship design
(though within the traditional battleship framework). Sims, the leader of the
faction, had met both Percy Scott and John Jellicoe while on duty in Hong Kong
at the turn of the century. Enthusiastically supported by Teddy Roosevelt, Sims
and Fiske became the Scotts and Jellicoes of the U.S. Navy, while Poundstone
was the driving force behind the all-big-gun battleships Michigan and South
Carolina, which slightly preceded Dreadnought. Sims in particular applied
Scott’s continuous-aim firing techniques, exploited new developments in fire
control, and devised technologies of his own. By the end of the Roosevelt
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<span lang="EN-GB">The training of enlisted personnel was as
advanced as that of the officer corps. As the navy reached its nadir in the
mid-1870s, Commodore Luce initiated a layered system of professional education
for seamen that is still being used. Recruits, who generally enlisted at
eighteen or nineteen for four to six years, first went to station ships for
basic indoctrination before transferring to training vessels to learn gunnery
and seamanship. In the 1890s the navy acquired property at Newport, Rhode
Island, and on Yerba Buena Island in San Francisco Bay for land-based training
stations (although these facilities were not formally established for some
years); later the service added stations at San Diego and Great Lakes, north of
Chicago. As it slowly evolved in the last decades of the nineteenth century and
the first decades of the twentieth, training for American sailors consisted of
three stages: initial instruction on a station ship, a cruise on one of the
vessels of the training squadron, and then assignment to one of the ships of
the fleet until the apprentice reached his twenty-first birthday, at which time
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<span lang="EN-GB">The spread-eagle patriotism that swept
across the United States in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War
stimulated a demand to man the navy with American citizens. During the Civil
War the service had been filled with foreigners and newly arrived immigrants.
Twenty years later the naval hierarchy began to search diligently not only in
eastern cities but also in the towns and hamlets of the Midwest for intelligent
boys of “native stock” to serve on the handful of steam and steel vessels that
constituted the new fleet. Like their colleagues in the Japanese naval
hierarchy, America’s admirals and navy secretaries wanted to spread the message
and attractiveness of sea power to the most obscure corners of the nation. They
also undoubtedly wanted to develop and maintain a navy composed largely of
“native stock” at a time when immigrants from southern and eastern Europe were
flooding the country. To induce enlistment by teenagers from respectable homes,
the service promised to instruct apprentices in “the elements of English
education, alternating with practical seamanship and other professional
occupations designed to prepare them for sailors in the Navy.” In practice
“English education” was subordinated to the demands of marlinespike seamanship,
but the young men did find themselves in a clearly defined professional
atmosphere. The navy also established advanced training programs for especially
promising petty officers during their second enlistments. Classes for gunners
and artisans began at the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D.C., and somewhat
later training courses in diving, electricity, and torpedoes were instituted at
the Torpedo Station in Newport. When the electrician’s rating was established
in 1898, new schools started in Boston and New York and on Mare Island north of
San Francisco, and in 1902 a new artificer’s school opened in Norfolk. So
important had engineering rates become by this time that the navy instituted
special pay grades to attract and retain high-quality personnel. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Out in the fleet imaginative commanding
officers set up their own regimens. The war with Spain revealed again that
modern naval gunnery was extremely tricky and difficult to master. While
British commanders were ordering their officers to throw practice shells
overboard to avoid shooting them at targets, thus dirtying the white decks of
His Majesty’s ships with shell smoke, their American counterparts began a
practical course for gunners aboard the monitor Amphritrite. It was so
successful that a school for firemen was soon organized aboard the cruiser
Cincinnati. In 1909 Roosevelt could boast that his sailors were no longer the
bluff, jolly, illiterate, profane marlinespike seamen of old but instead a new
breed of “sea mechanics,” masters of the most advanced military technology in
the world. Their officers generally treated them that way, realizing that there
was an art to disciplining intelligent, well-trained young products of a
society not far removed from its raw frontier beginnings and prizing personal
independence over almost every other virtue. </span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-87099988284980590552015-06-17T23:51:00.000-07:002015-06-17T23:51:15.811-07:00Teddy’s Navy III<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KW5gwmBsFIE/VYJqPzzKYGI/AAAAAAAAzmo/IkjXdD7IZgM/s1600/greatwhitefleetj.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="310" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KW5gwmBsFIE/VYJqPzzKYGI/AAAAAAAAzmo/IkjXdD7IZgM/s400/greatwhitefleetj.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">But the modern American navy had an
Achilles’ heel. The innovative, progressive society that produced superior
officers and enlisted recruits thwarted the growth of professionalism based on
long-term service. American boys who had been enticed to “join the navy and see
the world” did not take instinctively or even kindly to the essential demands
of naval discipline. Most sailors chose to get out of the service at the end of
their first “hitch,” leaving only a handful of increasingly well-trained
enlisted men to run the lower decks and all the machinery. The U.S. Navy was
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and underdisciplined as well—throughout the first four decades of the twentieth
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naval power during the first years of the century, the United States was
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that would require a fleet at least as large as that of Great Britain, or it
could seize control of either the Isthmus of Panama or Nicaragua and build a
canal that would allow the shuffling of fleet units between one ocean and the
other during times of tensions or conflict. But as Theodore Roosevelt and
Alfred Thayer Mahan both recognized, an Isthmian canal itself demanded a large
navy; otherwise, as Roosevelt said, the “building of the canal would be merely
giving hostage to any power of superior strength.” Mahan added that a canal
would be a strategic asset only if the U.S. Navy had indisputable command over
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tied the American fleet to the Caribbean and adjacent Atlantic waters. But the
1907 crisis with Tokyo over the harsh treatment of Japanese immigrants on the
West Coast caused many in Washington to share the feelings of those on the
other side of the Pacific: a Japanese-American conflict might well be
inevitable, even welcome. </span></div>
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little or nothing about it. As transpacific tensions boiled up early in the
year, Roosevelt asked the navy if it was developing plans to prosecute a war
against Japan. George Dewey, head of the General Board, assured Roosevelt that
such planning was under way, but this was not true. Ever since the 1897
incident with Japan over Hawaii, the Naval War College staff and then the
General Board itself had intermittently pondered the possibility and nature of
a Far Eastern war, but neither had developed realistic scenarios or studies.
Given America’s preoccupation with the German navy and the Open Door in China,
initial thinking involved fanciful conflicts between coalitions of imperial
powers for control of Asia. For a time there was loose, rather melodramatic,
talk, and apparently some planning, among board members, usually led by Rear
Admiral Henry C. Taylor, “Dewey’s right-hand man,” of an Anglo-U.S.-Japanese
alliance against Europe’s continental powers (Germany, France, and Russia).
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Station, responded unenthusiastically. The most that America’s small Asiatic
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reinvigorated the staff, and the planning process was finally concluded. His
strategists “predicted that eventually Japan would shift its tactics from gradual
economic encroachment to open aggression” in Asia, which “would require a ‘call
for action’ in support of the Open Door. In the best of circumstances, one or
more allies would rally to the cause and check Japan in a continental war in
which threats to U.S. possessions would be mere diversions, the role of the
Blue navy was minor and of the Blue army nil.” Rogers and his colleagues also
explored another possibility. Japan could try to break out into the Pacific,
destroying the “containment” that the European powers and the United States
exerted on the island nation. In this scenario Japanese fleet units would move
against the Philippines, Guam, perhaps even Hawaii. The Blue fleet would have
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even as Sat</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ō</span><span lang="EN-GB"> Tetsutar</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">ō</span><span lang="EN-GB"> and his colleagues were articulating powerful reasons for an
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“inflammatory” to those who cherished traditional American isolation from
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naval policy. In 1914 the General Board finally adopted the broad thesis of a
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illusion, however carefully phrased, of the Yellow Peril. That specter had
become a staple of American popular thought after the Russo-Japanese War. In
May and June 1907 the New York Times and Colliers published serials describing
a conflict with Japan fought around the Philippines and Hawaii. The same year
the translation of a German novel titled Banzai appeared in the United States.
It depicted a war in which the Japanese navy, using secret weapons, destroyed
the U.S. fleet in a mid-Pacific battle lasting little more than thirty minutes,
after which Japan invaded and seized California. </span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-8736071979110223822015-06-17T23:47:00.001-07:002015-06-17T23:47:46.322-07:00Teddy’s Navy IV<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NChiQmzch8k/VYJphkfn0QI/AAAAAAAAzmc/xG2olDFLI-E/s1600/1050066.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="262" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NChiQmzch8k/VYJphkfn0QI/AAAAAAAAzmc/xG2olDFLI-E/s400/1050066.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Two years later Homer Lea, a short,
nondescript former Stanford University student, published The Valor of
Ignorance. Echoing Roosevelt’s philosophy, Lea’s book was about the perils of
military and naval weakness. He dedicated his work to Secretary of State Elihu
Root, who was busy arranging a series of treaty agreements with Japan, and he
secured an enthusiastic endorsement from Lieutenant General Adna R. Chaffee,
former chief of staff of the U.S. Army. The novel differed from other jeremiads
in one significant sense: Lea was no racist. His checkered career included
several years as military adviser to Sun Yat-sen, who was then in exile
awaiting the fall of China’s corrupt Manchu dynasty. Lea depicted the Japanese
as highly intelligent, valorous, and resourceful warriors on land and at sea.
He wanted no war with them. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Lea argued that a sudden Japanese assault
on the United States would inevitably follow California’s vicious racial
policies and that it would happen soon, before the Panama Canal was completed.
The American battleship fleet would be in the Atlantic, at least two months’
steaming from San Francisco. The American army, centered in California but
pitifully small ever since the Civil War and ten years away from its “splendid
little war” against Europe’s worst soldiers, would be no match for Japan’s one
hundred thousand troops recently seasoned in battle on the heights of Port
Arthur. The Imperial Japanese Navy would brush aside the few small American
warships on the Pacific Coast. The Imperial Japanese Army would simultaneously
storm the San Francisco and Marin peninsulas. American troops, bottled up in
the Presidio, would be unable to stop Japanese guns from reducing San Francisco
to rubble, causing general panic that would dwarf the hysteria after the 1906
earthquake. </span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">The
inevitable consummation that follows the [Japanese] investment of San Francisco
becomes apparent in the utter helplessness of the Republic. In the entire
nation is not another regiment of regular troops; no generals, no corporals.
Not months, but years, must elapse before armies equal to the Japanese are able
to pass in parade. These must then make their way over deserts such as no
armies have ever heretofore crossed; scale the intrenched and stupendous
heights [that is, the Sierras] that form the redoubts of the desert moats;
attempting, in the valor of their ignorance, the militarily impossible; turning
mountain-gorges into the ossuaries of their dead, and burdening the desert
winds with the spirits of their slain. The repulsed and distracted forces to scatter,
as heretofore, dissension throughout the Union, brood rebellions, class and
sectional insurrections, until this heterogeneous Republic, in its principles,
shall disintegrate, and again into the palm of re-established monarchy pay the
toll of its vanity and its scorn.</span></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Conservatives throughout the country agreed
with Lea’s description of a militarily weak, politically fragile republic.
Appomattox, less than a half century in the past, remained a living shame to
the many thousands of vanquished who still revered the cause. Could the South
be considered loyal if the Union was again imperiled? The industrial strikes of
the nineties were still fresh in people’s minds, and the International Workers
of the World, a revolutionary labor union of considerable force and influence,
continued to agitate openly and effectively throughout western mining and
timber camps. Finally, several million immigrants, officially designated
“aliens,” continued to pour onto American shores each year. If the Pacific
Coast was detached by a Japanese occupation, no one could predict how badly the
rippling effect might tear the nation apart. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Roosevelt undoubtedly read or knew about
most of the alarmist tales about Japan that were swirling around the country.
Certainly, they conformed generally with Taylor’s scenarios and the quiet work
by naval planners to devise a plausible rationale for a Blue-Orange war. The
rising tide of American concern about Japanese intentions and capabilities
after 1906 thus closely paralleled British hysteria over Wilhelm’s High Seas
Fleet. The Panama Canal was still years from completion, and American bases in
Hawaii, the Philippines, and the island holdings in between were either
rudimentary or non-existent. The only way the United States could demonstrate
its power in the Pacific was to send the fleet there. But when word came from
Washington that the battle fleet would soon leave the Atlantic, all the old
fears of being left undefended resurfaced in the East Coast press and
legislative halls. Editorial writers up and down the seaboard concocted
doomsday scenarios of American battleships being dashed to pieces on far-off
rocky coasts or sabotaged by foreign agents in Latin or Asian ports while
German or even British naval bombardment reduced Boston, New York, and
Philadelphia to rubble and the White House became the headquarters of European
invaders. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Roosevelt decided to trump his domestic
critics. He would not only send the fleet to the Pacific to awe Japan; he would
also immediately bring it back to the Atlantic via the Indian Ocean and Suez to
act as sentry against possible German machinations. American battleships would
thus make the most spectacular around-the-world voyage ever undertaken. The
U.S. Navy would demonstrate a previously unimaginable global reach. The idea
had been in the president’s mind as soon as Zinovi Rozhestvenski had been
defeated at Tsushima. “Unquestionably a main object was to impress Japan with
our power so that she would not be tempted to make trouble.” But visits to
Latin American ports on both oceans could also strengthen hemispheric
solidarity and send a message to Berlin. Moreover, a successful cruise far
exceeding in length and hardship the earlier dramatic dashes of Oregon around
South America and Brooklyn from New York to Manila would demonstrate beyond
question U.S. superiority in navigation, engineering, communication, vessel and
crew stamina, and fleet maneuvering. The cost and duration of such a voyage
would reveal the imperative need to complete the Panama Canal, whose
construction according to constitutional law had to be refinanced every two
years by a new Congress. And finally, a world cruise would stimulate increased
national pride in the navy as the changeover to expensive dreadnoughts made
public support for naval spending essential. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Later, Roosevelt would write that
dispatching the American battle fleet round the world “was the most important
service that I rendered to peace. . . . I had become convinced that for many
reasons it was essential that we should have it clearly understood, by our own
people especially, but also by other peoples, that the Pacific was as much our
home waters as the Atlantic, and that our fleet could and would at will pass
from one to the other of the two great oceans.” Not only would the voyage
benefit the navy and arouse popular interest in the service, but also it “would
make foreign nations accept as a matter of course that our fleet should from
time to time be gathered in the Pacific, just as from time to time it was
gathered in the Atlantic, and that its presence in one ocean was no more to be
accepted as a mark of hostility to any Asiatic power than its presence in the
Atlantic was to be accepted as a mark of hostility to any European power. I
determined on the move without consulting the Cabinet,” Roosevelt continued,
“precisely as I took Panama without consulting the Cabinet. A council of war
never fights, and in a crisis the duty of a leader is to lead and not to take
refuge behind the generally timid wisdom of a multitude of councillors.”
Roosevelt claimed that “neither the English nor the German authorities believed
it possible to take a fleet of great battleships round the world. They did not
believe that their own fleets could perform the feat, and still less did they
believe that the American fleet could. I made up my mind that it was time to have
a show down in the matter.” If the United States Navy was incapable of roaming
the global sea-lanes, American foreign policy would have to be dramatically
reshaped. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In the weeks between the formal
announcement of the voyage and the departure of ships, Roosevelt slowly became
aware of the enormous implications of his decision. Like a great magnet
swimming through forty-six thousand miles of ocean, America’s sixteen battleships
would attract all the tensions, animosities, excitements, and yearnings of a
profoundly unsettled world. Roosevelt worked day and night to control the
impending enterprise. Officers were warned that anxieties about the ability of
their ships and men to complete such a voyage could never be expressed. Only
the most jingoistic journalists—unreflective friends of the administration and
the navy—were allowed to make the trip and report on its progress. A small
“train” of colliers and supply ships was dispatched to key ports throughout the
world to replenish the fleet as it passed by. Roosevelt and others repeatedly
assured Ambassador Baron Kogoro Takahira that the American naval demonstration
was not directed at Japan. President and ambassador exchanged many notes, in
which each informed the other that a fleet visit to Tokyo Bay could be
considered only an act of friendship, not intimidation. When an unexpected
message arrived in the midst of the battle fleet’s voyage from the aging
empress dowager in Peking inviting the battleships to visit China for a joint
naval review that would symbolically reinforce the concept of the Open Door,
Roosevelt quickly capitulated to Takahira’s insistence that fleet commander
Admiral Charles S. Sperry administer a subtle but unmistakable insult. Only a
handful of American ships would be detached for a China visit, while most of
the fleet would sail from Tokyo to Manila Bay. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">On December 16, 1907, America’s sixteen
newly refurbished pre-dreadnought battleships steamed majestically down Hampton
Roads and out into the Atlantic. They were initially commanded by Admiral
Robert “Fighting Bob” Evans, who because of exhaustion would unexpectedly turn
his command over to Sperry once the fleet reached California. The white hulls and
buff upper works gleamed in the pale early-winter sunlight. Roosevelt proudly
led them out of the Roads on the presidential yacht Mayflower. As the long
column reached the ocean, Mayflower swung aside, and each battleship passed
with a twenty-one-gun salute and bands playing before wheeling southward toward
Brazil and the distant fog-shrouded Strait of Magellan. Just before departure
Dr. Lee De Forest visited each ship, adjusting his new wireless communications
systems while confidently spreading the word that signal flags would someday be
obsolete.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-63767736255244561822015-06-17T23:44:00.001-07:002015-06-17T23:44:03.043-07:00US NAVY Late Nineteenth Century Part I<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">USS Maine. Second-class battleship (originally
classified as armored cruiser). The first U.S. Navy battleship —if indeed it
might be termed a battleship.</span></i></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Sea power had suddenly acquired a cachet it
had not enjoyed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars. “Ten years ago,” a young
writer named Fred T. Jane remarked in October of that year, “even in England,
where the navy has a peculiarly vital importance, comparatively few people had
more than the barest acquaintance with the units of their fleet; in France, the
next naval Power, the warships were then scarcely known to the civilian; in the
United States, memories of naval actions in the [Civil] War lingered feebly.”
Now the industrial world had fallen prey to an “all-pervading naval mania.”
Such mania, of course, would naturally lead to war at some point, but Jane
admitted that “we are still blindly groping when we dream of the naval warfare
of to-day or to-morrow.” The past was of little help. “In history, as I read
it, ‘strategy’ so often seems to have been, at the best, only on very broad and
general lines.” The young observer who would go on to found the most
authoritative annual guide to the world’s fighting fleets ever published added
that “a vague desire to get at the enemy, and beat him, without much thought to
subsequent issues seems rather to have been the dominant idea. The strategical
advantages would seem to have been first noted and made use of after the
victory.” Groping in an admitted fog of ignorance about the new navies, Jane
concluded that the “naval battle of to-morrow may be a terrible thing; but
there is reason to believe that it will be far less dreadful than people are so
fond of imagining.” The new warfare between “ironclads” might “not be very
sanguinary” since it precluded the kind of bloody, close-in fighting that
characterized the Age of Sail, while science and technology had yet to solve
the problem of “how to hit at long range—except at target practice.”
Quick-firing four- to six-inch naval guns were effective since they did not
have to be relaid after every discharge, and thus sighted themselves, as it were.
But shells from such comparatively small guns “cannot reach a ship’s vitals.” </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Within a year the U.S. victory over Spain
began to clarify if not resolve the issues that Jane raised, while reconfirming
the primacy of ironclad warfare in the Western mind. Americans had been slow to
grasp the geopolitical implications of the post-1870 revolution in world naval
power. For many years, evidence from the War of 1812 notwithstanding, a
majority chose to believe that the vast oceans lapping the shores of North America
constituted an unbridgeable moat that no foreign invader would try to cross.
Not until 1883 did Congress, “tired of being embarrassed by a nonfunctional,
decrepit, wooden navy,” authorize funds for “our first four steel warships,”
three modest-size “unarmored cruisers”— Boston, Chicago, and Atlanta, together
with the “dispatch boat” Dolphin.15 However, these strange, handsome vessels
with their two tall brown funnels, brilliant white hulls and upper works, and
high masts still rigged for sails did not reach the fleet for years. When they
did, they were commonly referred to as “the White Fleet.” In the meantime,
young Edward L. Beach, who graduated from Annapolis in 1888 with only
thirty-four other young men, discovered that his beloved service anticipated
having room for no more than half that number because of a personnel system so
backward and chaotic that its books carried the names of officers who had not
been on active duty for years, many of whom had died or acquired criminal
records. Beach’s first ship was the “wooden Civil War sloop-of-war” Richmond,
an “old and thoroughly rotten” vessel whose crew was frankly ashamed of the
“decrepit engineering plant” and “feeble smooth bore guns.” The vessel “was a
laughingstock for all who observed her.” The men writhed in agony every time
they encountered foreign sailors who served in brand-new “modern warships built
of steel, with good engines and high powered guns.” The navy, “superannuated”
in every way, was filled with comparatively elderly time servers who clogged
the promotion ladder.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Even in the new steel and steam vessels
that appeared in increasing numbers after 1890, eight to ten junior officers
were crammed into tiny dark holes near the coal bunkers or in the fo’c’sle at
the bow of the vessel. The crew’s quarters could be only imagined. Everyone
slept in curved, uncomfortable, and closely slung hammocks (which remained
standard issue for enlisted men to the very eve of World War II) or on thin
mattresses on the steel decks beneath easily stowed tables. The officers—who
enjoyed the status of wearing pajamas—were “forced to sleep, if at all,” with
their garments “tied tightly about our ankles and sleeve ends about our wrists,
and with the further protection of gloves, socks and head guards. The bedbug is
a mighty beast.” Air-conditioning was, of course, unknown, and all suffered day
and night during frequent cruises to the Caribbean. “Every meal was a torment,”
and uniforms were ludicrously elaborate, dreadfully tight, and always hot and
uncomfortable. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Captains and commanders “went by the book.”
Even then the strain of command or the fear occasioned by capricious orders
from Washington could overwhelm the most confident skipper, leading him to
bizarre behavior, nervous breakdowns, and relief from command. “The enlisted
man of those days was magnificent as a fighter and a seaman,” Beach recalled,
“but tough and hard to control.” Because naval life was so unappetizing,
citizenship could never be a requirement for enlistment, and many a brawling
drunk from the depths of the immigrant population found his way on board Uncle
Sam’s warships. The abolition of flogging in 1851, though clearly mandatory on
humanitarian grounds, nonetheless made disciplining the recalcitrant
exceedingly difficult. When Lieutenant George Dewey, who would later gain
immortality at Manila Bay, went aboard the ancient steam-driven side-wheeler
Mississippi as executive officer in 1861, “he found over a hundred men in
chains between the guns and rioters in possession of part of the lower decks.” </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">But change was on the way. When Benjamin
Harrison came to the presidency in March 1889 he brought with him the dedicated
imperialist Benjamin F. Tracy who proved to be a superb administrator of the
Navy Department and a formidable politician who could sustain and build upon
the modest momentum already generated in and beyond Congress for a modern sea
service. In the late eighties legislators had loosened the purse strings
further, and between the spring and late autumn of 1889 the last of the three
original unprotected cruisers was joined by four larger armored sisters, three
gunboats, and a bizarre “dynamite ship.” One of Tracy’s first acts was to
create a policy board that Mahan (then completing his magnum opus) advised but
could not dominate. The board submitted a report at the end of 1889 calling for
the creation of two fleets—one a coastal-defense force, the other “for long
range offensive action.” Under Tracy’s lash, the first two seagoing but
coastal-defense battleships, Texas and Maine, were afloat by 1891, with a
half-dozen more battleships and armored cruisers being built in national and
private shipyards from New York City to San Francisco. The later battleships,
starting with Iowa, were conceived and designed to fulfill the long-range offensive
role. When Beach returned to sea duty in 1890, he thus found the brand-new
cruiser Philadelphia to be a “splendid ship,” possessing “a magnificent
assemblage of modern machinery” that included triple expansion and ten
thousand–horsepower engines “with wonderful air pumps, circulating pumps,
condensers, [and] Marshall valve gear.” Ten years later, the authoritative
Jane’s Fighting Ships placed the new U.S. steel navy behind only Great
Britain’s mammoth imperial fleet. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Great forces, some scarcely understandable
to the American people themselves, were shaping these developments. The United
States of America was not only the first new nation of modern times but also
the only one that rested on no large indigenous population. More than nine out
of ten Americans of whatever racial or cultural stock were either immigrants or
at best second- or third-generation native born. A sense of nationhood thus had
to be forged out of common experience, and only one such experience was
available either as something personally lived or as romantically
conceived—westward expansion and the frontier. The year Mahan burst on the
scene, with the nation rapidly transforming into an urban-industrial giant, a
young historian named Frederick Jackson Turner wrote that “our early history is
the study of European germs developing in an American environment. . . . The
frontier is the line of most rapid and effective Americanization.” But Turner
proceeded to emphasize the recent conclusions of the superintendent of the
federal census. By 1890, a clear “frontier of settlement” was no more. For the
first time ever, and forever more, “Americans would be forced to live within a
closed space.” There was only one way out of this admittedly vast continental
confine, and Mahan had shown the way. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The captain’s genius lay not only in
showing his people the way to a seemingly endless frontier out on the world
ocean and on the far distant coasts of the earth but also in stimulating their
fears of continued vulnerability from predatory European nation-states. A
powerful, often overlooked, element in Mahan’s work was his insistence that the
balance of global military and naval power in 1890 had swung decisively against
the United States. There was abundant evidence to support the supposition.
France coveted Central America and during the American Civil War had
established a brief puppet government in Mexico under Maximilian. In 1881,
Count Ferdinand-Marie de Lesseps began what would prove to be a failed effort
to dig an Isthmian canal in Panama. Germany’s rising interest in establishing
colonies in the Western Hemisphere and the Pacific was well known. Britain’s
enmity toward its former North American colonies had flared anew when Whitehall
supported the Confederate cause for as long as it appeared promising; in their
hearts Britons had never yet accepted the United States of America, and there
was no reason to suggest that they ever would. Even Spain, weary and
dispirited, its ancient New World empire crumbling under native insurrection,
seemed able to defy the Americans with impunity. In 1873 a Spanish warship
seized Virginius, almost starting a war, even though it quickly became apparent
that the gunrunner was flying the American flag illegally. If Europe could so
consistently and humiliatingly dismiss or ignore American hemispheric
interests, where did that leave the venerable Monroe Doctrine? Finally, the
United States could not even impose its will upon fractious hemispheric
neighbors. As late as 1879 the U.S. fleet was so inferior to that of Chile that
Washington could not intervene on behalf of friendly Peru when the two Latin
countries went to war. </span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-55500546836778214342015-06-17T23:42:00.001-07:002015-06-17T23:42:26.854-07:00US NAVY Late Nineteenth Century Part II<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">USS Iowa. First truly seagoing U.S. Navy battleship,
but its 12-inch main armament was behind the standards of the time, and Iowa
rapidly became obsolete. Participated in Battle of Santiago, 3 July 1898.</span></i></b><br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Only a modern industrial navy could
preserve and promote expanding American overseas interests, and only an
Isthmian canal could guarantee the shuffling of fleet units from one ocean to
the other that would ensure a rapid response to hemispheric and Pacific crises.
Mahan became almost morbidly preoccupied with the strategic importance of the
Isthmus and its Caribbean and Pacific approaches. At the time he wrote it
seemed that the Colombian government would grant France the right to complete
de Lesseps’s project. From an Isthmian base France or any nation that might ally
with it would threaten America’s Gulf Coast and the Mississippi River, the
nation’s great internal highway. Mahan also articulated a more vague fear that
an unforeseen war with a European power would expose America’s large,
completely defenseless coastal cities to a possibly devastating naval attack
either by bombardment or by outright invasion. The British burning of the
Capitol and White House was only seventy-six years in the past when Mahan
published The Influence of Sea Power, and young Theodore Roosevelt’s recent
naval history of the War of 1812 had reminded American readers of its horror.
In 1898 panic would sweep the cities of the eastern seaboard when it was
learned that the Spanish fleet had sailed westward from home waters, its
destination unknown. Might not Cervera mount a naval bombardment of Boston, New
York, or Charleston on his way to Cuban waters?</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Mahan clearly set forth the rationale for a
powerful defensive fleet. The main thrust of his argument, however, involved
expansion. In the modern world of powerful industrial states managing extensive
overseas empires a nation could not remain strong if it did not join the global
scramble for colonies. And if a nation did not remain strong, it would
inevitably become prey to those that were. Did this mean that the United States
had to build a big navy to use as its own aggressive expression of national
interest? Navy secretary Benjamin Tracy seemed to suggest so when he
enthusiastically accepted the findings of the 1889 policy board that the nation
should, in effect, put aside its military isolation for a forward strategy.
Rather than waiting for an enemy to approach U.S. shores where he or they would
be presumably repulsed by a combination of a coastal defense force and onshore
forts, the navy should take the fight to the enemy with extended battle-fleet
operations in foreign waters. But a closer look at the “new,” still numerically
small steel-clad, steam-driven navy that began to emerge from American
shipyards after 1883 raises some serious doubts. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In contrast to the global sailing fleet of
the immediate pre–Civil War era, the new navy seemed “a defensive answer to
European developments.” Overwhelmingly concentrated on the East Coast, the
fleet “reflected a shrunken rather than an enlarged strategic perimeter”; its
orientation was toward protecting the great cities of the Atlantic seaboard and
secondarily the Caribbean and eastern Pacific (that is, Hawaiian) sea
approaches to the Isthmus. The “‘search for bases’” that preoccupied much
public debate was in fact a search for a few rented “coal piles” in two or
three Asian and Pacific ports (Yokohama, Pago Pago, and Honolulu) in contrast
to the earlier days, when Washington had maintained naval agents and
storekeepers in London, Marseilles, La Spezia, Buenos Aires, Saint Thomas, Rio
de Janeiro, Lima, Valparaiso, Honolulu, Macao, and Shanghai. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">America’s first three new battleships that
came into service after 1890 were deliberately designed and built as smaller,
less powerful, and shorter-range versions of their most up-to-date European
counterparts and were used in effect as coastal-defense ships. Only a few
protected cruisers such as those found with George Dewey at Manila Bay were
given the enormous fuel capacity to conduct the historic mission of a weaker
navy—the guerre de course. In the beginning, not even Mahan could reverse the
trend. As the first new short-range battleships came into service in the
midnineties, the Naval War College continued to restrict its studies to
Atlantic trade routes, “the strategic geography” of the Gulf of Mexico and
Caribbean, the defense of Hawaii, “and the maintenance of the neutrality of an
isthmian canal.” Soon after his book appeared, Mahan was ordered by the Navy
Department to Washington, D.C., “to draw up contingency plans for hostilities
with Great Britain or Spain.” But the world’s chief philosopher of expansive
navalism was given the task of drawing plans for a defensive war in the Western
Hemisphere rather than the eastern Atlantic, North Sea, or Mediterranean. Among
his responsibilities, Mahan was directed to ponder the possibility of a sudden
German naval assault against Dutch possessions in the Caribbean. Thus the surge
to imperialism that overtook the United States in 1898 came not as a powerfully
gathering force before that year but as a sudden eruption in that year, largely
the result of Dewey’s spectacular and wholly unanticipated victory in the
Philippines.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-69781110140344681742015-06-17T23:39:00.001-07:002015-06-17T23:39:38.515-07:00CSS H. L. Hunley’s Grave<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0443cZ3on3k/VYJndQUHyuI/AAAAAAAAzlo/S9lZVtng3fM/s1600/H%2BL%2BHunley%2BMockup.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0443cZ3on3k/VYJndQUHyuI/AAAAAAAAzlo/S9lZVtng3fM/s400/H%2BL%2BHunley%2BMockup.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of figures"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Confederate Submarine, 7.5 tons. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Length 39 feet 6 inches, beam 3 feet
10-inch, speed 2.5–4 miles per hour, depth 4 feet 3-inch. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Complement of eight. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Built from steam boilers in the spring of 1863
at Mobile. Taken by rail to Charleston, S.C. Five crewmen drowned in Charleston
Harbor on August 29, 1863, off James Island at the Fort Johnson wharf when it
accidentally submerged with its hatches open in 42 feet of water. Was quickly
raised. Horace L. Hunley and seven crewmen drowned when human error and
mechanical defects caused the submarine to sink during another trial run in 56
feet of water on October 15, 1863, in Charleston Harbor. Raised and called the
“Iron Coffin” because of its sinkings with loss of crews. It was the first
submarine to sink an enemy warship in battle. On February 17, 1864, the CSS H.
L. Hunley rammed a spar torpedo into the USS Housatonic and sank the Union
warship. The CSS H. L. Hunley sank on the way back to Charleston with its
commander, Lt. George E. Dixon of the 21st Ala. Volunteer Regiment, and its
crew. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Some mistakenly believed the submarine
jammed the nose into the hole made by the torpedo and sank. Union sailors
dragged the area for 500 yards around the USS Housatonic but failed to find the
CSS H. L. Hunley. After the war some erroneous report said it was about 100
feet from the USS Housatonic, with bow toward the USS Housatonic. Probably sank
due to the hatch being open on its trip back to Charleston when a large wave
hit. Originally thought by some to have been removed by Benjamin Maillefert for
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers along with the USS Housatonic in 1872–73. P.
T. Barnum offered $100,000 for the recovery of the submarine. Searches were
made for the vessel in 1876. Clive Cussler’s National Underwater and Marine
Association (NUMA) with the University of South Carolina and the Institute of
Archaeology and Anthropology discovered the vessel in Maffitt’s Channel on May
3, 1995, off Sullivan’s Island after years of searching. The submarine was in
28 feet of water with 3 feet of silt over it. It was tilted at a 45° angle
about 4 miles outside of Charleston. There was some controversy regarding its
prior discovery by E. Lee Spence. On June 13, 2000, divers recovered the
vessel’s 17-foot long iron pole, which had carried its torpedo. Raised on
August 7, 2000, amid much fanfare by the work boat Karlissa B. Straps were used
to lift the vessel out of the mud. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology
and Anthropology, the U.S. National Park Service, and the nonprofit Friends of
the Hunley were involved. About $17 million from public donations, the State of
South Carolina, U.S. Department of Defense, and others were used to recover and
restore the submarine. Hauled into Charleston to a lab in the old U.S. Navy
Yard at the Warren Lasch Conservation Center. The submarine was conserved,
explored, and the crewmen’s remains were removed in 2001. Among the items
recovered was Lt. George E. Dixon’s lucky 1860 $20 gold piece, which had been
given to him by his girlfriend, Queenie Bennett of Mobile. The gold piece had
deflected a bullet at the Battle of Shiloh and probably saved Dixon’s life. A
Union dog tag from Ezra Chamberlin of the 7th Conn. Regiment was also found in
the submarine. Many had toured the sub in the lab, and a permanent exhibition
will be set up. The recovered crew was buried amid much ceremony.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">(ORN, 15:334–38; Chief of Engineers Report
1873, 68, 731; Scharf, History of the Confederate Navy, 761; CWC, 6-244–46;
Shugg, “Prophet of the Deep: The H. L. Hunley,” Civil War Times Illustrated,
4–10, 44–47; Keatts and Farr, Dive into History, 26–34; Spence, List, 56–60;
Wilkinson, “Peripatetic Coffin: Civil War Submarine,” Ocean, 13–17; Cussler and
Dirgo, Sea Hunters, 185–221; Chase, “In Search of the CSS Hunley,” Blue &
Gray Magazine, 24–26, 28; Shipwrecks.com Web site, Hunley rebuttal; S.C.
Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, “Hunley Update,” Web site; Naval
Historical Center, “H. L. Hunley,” Web site; Civil War @ Charleston Web site,
“C.S.S. Hunley Submarine Recovery Information.”)</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-39883621932183000392015-06-17T11:06:00.004-07:002015-06-17T23:45:12.943-07:00Longitude Problem <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jal0OAuevCc/VYJo4_Ndr4I/AAAAAAAAzmU/nkkNpCBfRag/s1600/derftggretd.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jal0OAuevCc/VYJo4_Ndr4I/AAAAAAAAzmU/nkkNpCBfRag/s400/derftggretd.jpg" width="317" /></a></div>
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<br />
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">P.L.
Tassaert's half-tone print of Thomas King's original 1767 portrait of John
Harrison, located at the Science and Society Picture Library, London</span></i></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The problem of the longitude, locating the
east-west position of a ship on the open sea, was the classic technological
problem of the early modern period, assaulted by many of the greatest
scientists of the scientific revolution, including Galileo Galilei (1564–1642),
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695), and Edmond Halley (1656–1742). The great astronomical
observatories founded in the period, most notably the Paris Observatory and the
English Royal Observatory at Greenwich, had the solution of the longitude
problem high on their agendas. All failed, leaving the problem for the
eighteenth century. If anything, it was of increasing urgency, given the
expansion of the territory covered by European vessels. As the celestial bodies
seemed to rotate around Earth from east to west, they did not seem to offer a
way to know one’s position on it. Existing methods, based on observation of the
Moon, or simply estimating the speed one had been traveling for a given time,
were maddeningly and even dangerously imprecise. Most approaches to the
longitude reduced the problem to that of finding the difference between the
time on the ship, set by observation of the Sun’s meridian at noon, and the
time at a fixed point, usually that of the home port. The difference in time
could be translated into spatial terms as the difference in longitude between
the two points. There were all sorts of bizarre schemes for this, but the two
main approaches were using astronomical events to give the correct time and
creating a clock able to give accurate time on a ship. If the home-port time of
a celestial occurrence were known, all that would be necessary would be to
compare the ship’s own time on observation of the occurrence. For example, if
the time when an eclipse would occur at a fixed point were known, all that
would be necessary would be to compare the time that the ship’s navigator saw
the eclipse, and the distance between the two points would be known. This
method was limited in its uses, however, as eclipses were quite rare. Galileo’s
idea of using the frequent eclipses of the moons of Jupiter became dominant in
geography and cartography on land, but the difficulty of observing Jupiter’s
moons from a moving ship made it difficult if not impossible at sea. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The greatest eighteenth-century sea power,
Great Britain took the lead in most eighteenth- century longitude schemes, although
its colonial rival, France, was not far behind. Two unsuccessful longitude
solvers, William Whiston and Humphrey Ditton (1675–1715), set forth a project
in 1713 for the creation of a network of stationary ships over the seas, whose
crews would fire guns at designated times, enabling passing ships to set their
distances by factoring in their knowledge of the speed of sound. This idea was
impractical on many levels, and never seriously considered. Whiston and
Ditton’s lobbying of the British Parliament for a more active approach to the
problem along with London’s maritime leaders whom they had organized resulted
in the Longitude Act of 1714. This act established a prize of 20,000 pounds for
a solution accurate to half a degree of a great circle around Earth; 15,000
pounds for a solution accurate within two-thirds of a degree; and 10,000 for a
solution accurate within a degree. It also set up the Longitude Board whose ex
officio members included the astronomer royal, the president of the Royal
Society, and the first lord of the Admiralty, among others. The board disposed
of funds to encourage promising ideas and was the first great institutional
patron of science. It was deluged with solutions, most of them crackpot, and
for the first decade and a half of its existence never met and concerned itself
with little beyond sending out rejection letters. The French Royal Academy of
Sciences meanwhile had used a bequest from the magistrate Rouille de Meslay to
set up a prize of 125,000 livres for the longitude and other improvements in
navigation, and were considerably more active, awarding 2,000 livres in 1720. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Serious eighteenth-century longitude ideas
divided into two categories: the creation of an accurate shipboard clock and
the astronomical method known as “lunar distances.” Lunar distances rested on
the invention of a new astronomical instrument, the octant. This happened twice
in 1731, with the independent work of the Englishman John Hadley (1682–1744)
and the Philadelphian Thomas Godfrey (1704–1749). An arrangement of mirrors
enabled a navigator to hold the distances between two celestial objects steady,
even on the deck of a rolling ship. By observing the angular separation of the
Moon and a given star, then comparing the time of observation with a table giving
the times when that angular separation would appear from a fixed point such as
London or Paris, the navigator could get the time differential and thus the
longitude. All this plan required were accurate, mathematically skilled
navigators and accurate tables of the extremely complex lunar motion, and
legions of astronomers all over Europe set to work to provide the latter.
Although the English and French scientific establishments poured effort and
money into the project, the most accurate tables were the work of a German,
Johann Tobias Mayer. Mayer’s death prevented him from claiming the prize,
although his widow received 3,000 pounds from the board. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">By comparison, the clock idea was somewhat
old-fashioned. The leader in the creation of a navigational clock was a
self-taught English clock maker of genius named John Harrison (1693–1776), who
worked outside the London-based English clock-making establishment. Harrison
had contacted Astronomer Royal Edmond Halley early in the project and enjoyed
some support from the Longitude Board and the Royal Society. But he also faced
opposition from a series of royal astronomers, including James Bradley and
Nevil Maskelyne, who strongly favored lunar distances and were ex officio
members of the Longitude Board, often supervising the trials. Harrison received
several thousand pounds from the Longitude Board, at one point benefiting from
the personal intervention of King George III (r. 1760–1820), but never won the
prize he sought. The French, meanwhile, were also investigating the possibility
of an accurate watch, led by the royal clock maker Ferdinand Berthoud (d.
1807). After shipboard watches were tested on voyages to Saint Domingue in 1769
and 1771, their use became common in the French marine.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">In England Harrison was pitted against
Maskelyne, the greatest exponent of lunar distances, who Harrison believed
applied unnecessarily stringent conditions to the tests of the clocks and did
not care for them properly when they were in his custody. Maskelyne’s annual
Nautical Almanac and Nautical Ephemeris, first published in 1767, with its
associated lunar tables, was the best available and put the lunar-distance
method on a sound footing. This idea originated in the work of the Frenchman
Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille (1713–1762) in the 1750s, but the French had never
followed up Lacaille’s work. They did publish a French translation of
Maskelyne’s almanac, beginning in 1772, a project with which Maskelyne
cooperated even while the two countries were at war. The British navy required
its navigators to be certified as proficient in Maskelyne’s method, although
this was not consistently enforced at first. Updated, Maskelyne’s works served
the international navigational community into the early twentieth century. It
is due to Maskelyne’s lunar tables that the meridian of the Royal Observatory
at Greenwich became the determining point for world time. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The lunar-distance method had the
disadvantages of not being possible on moonless nights, and of requiring
several observations and much tedious and difficult calculation. The
chronometric method using timepieces eventually became the most common way to
find the longitude. The problem was not the accuracy of the watches,
particularly after Captain James Cook used a timekeeper based on Harrison’s on
his second voyage, from 1772 to 1775, and enthusiastically testified to its
merits (although he also praised Maskelyne’s almanacs).The difficulty was the
cost of reproducing accurate timepieces. Late-eighteenth-century London
watchmakers, most notably John Arnold (1736–1799) and Thomas Earnshaw
(1749–1829), simplified Harrison’s designs and began mass production of
accurate shipboard watches, which became the dominant way of finding the
longitude by the 1820s. The Longitude Board itself was disbanded in the new
Longitude Act of 1828. Its greatest prize was never awarded.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">References</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> Howse, Derek. Nevil Maskelyne: The Seaman’s Astronomer. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1989. Sobel, Dava. Longitude: The True Story of a
Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. New
York: Walker, 1995.</span></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7899315620598334001.post-37886474138454088442015-06-10T02:46:00.000-07:002015-06-10T02:46:03.291-07:00Borodino class<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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In 1904 Moscow dispatched the 2nd Pacific Squadron,
commanded by Admiral Zinovi Petrovich Rohdzsvenski, from the Baltic to the
Pacific, halfway around the world, to salvage the desperate situation in the
Pacific. Rohdzsvenski’s main units numbered eight battleships, three armored
cruisers, and three hopelessly obsolete armored coast-defense warships. The
core of the Russian fleet was represented by the four new battleships of the
Borodino class (Borodino, Alexander III, Orel, and Kniaz Suvarov). The Russians
again appeared to have a strong edge in numbers, but they were, in truth,
inferior in just about every other way, particularly guns, armor, and speed.
And Rohdzsvenski’s fleet was also outclassed in the intangibles that really
counted: leadership, morale, and training. By the time it met the Japanese, the
Russian fleet was completing a debilitating seven-month epic of endurance.
Instead of training, the crews had exhausted themselves in repeated coaling
stops and were suffering from low morale and heat exhaustion.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The highly regarded 12,700-ton Retvisan, built by William
Cramp of Philadelphia, was the first Russian battleship protected by Krupp armor.
The 12,915-ton Tsesarevich, built in La Seyne, was used as a prototype for four
warships of the 13,520-ton Borodino class. The Borodinos were built in Russian
shipyards, along with a third ship of the Peresviet class and the 12,580-ton
Potemkin. The eight battleships of the 1898 program all were in service by the
beginning of the war with Japan in 1904. While focusing on capital ships Russia
remained a leader in mine warfare, in 1898–99 constructing the world’s first
purpose-built minelayers, the 3,010-ton Amur and Yenisei. Russia also purchased
the submarine Protector, launched in 1902 by the American Simon Lake, built
additional submarines in St Petersburg designed by Lake, and ordered three more
from Germania of Kiel.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Borodino-class battleships were based upon the earlier
battleship Tsesarevich, which had been built to a French design at La Seyne and
fought as the Russian flagship at the Battle of the Yellow Sea in 1904. The
Russian Navy agreed to buy Tsesarevitch under the conditions that they could
construct 5 more of them and modify them to meet the standards of the Russian
Navy; thus Oryol, Kniaz Suvorov, Borodino, Aleksandr III, and Slava were built
in Russian yards. Only Slava was not finished in time to participate in the
Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. As previously mentioned all of the class were of
a tumblehome hull design as were many of the French Pre-Dreadnoughts of the
period. Dupuy de Lôme, the leading French naval architect, was a proponent of
the idea as it increased fields of fire for the main and secondary gun
batteries, as well as improve seaworthiness and create greater freeboard.
Another advantage of the tumblehome design was that it provided for sloped
armour - giving a thicker vertical belt at any given point due to the slope of
the armour plate.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Along with the lead-ship of the class, Tsesarevich, the
vessels suffered from instability having a high centre of gravity (made worse
by overloading). The centre line bulkhead led to a danger of capsizing and a
narrow armour belt became submerged due to overloading. As such, some naval
architects regard these as some of the worst battleships ever built.</div>
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<br /></div>
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The Japanese re-built Oryol, which they renamed Iwami, by
substantially reducing its top-hamper and removing the lighter calibre guns.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.steelnavy.com/EExpressSuvorov.htm" target="_blank">LINK</a></div>
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<br /></div>
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LINK</div>
<a href="http://photo.starnet.ru/Thematic_Wallpapers/Korabli_i_suda/Bronenoscy_i_monitory/Borodino/index.htm" target="_blank"></a><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0